{"id":1343,"date":"2025-10-21T08:27:44","date_gmt":"2025-10-21T15:27:44","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/?page_id=1343"},"modified":"2026-04-03T08:57:05","modified_gmt":"2026-04-03T15:57:05","slug":"chapter-13-backyard-forest-stewardship","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/chapter-13-backyard-forest-stewardship\/","title":{"rendered":"Chapter 13: Backyard Forest Stewardship"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"wsu-hero wsu-width--full wsu-pattern--wsu-light-radial-left  wsu-hero--style-boxed \">\n\t<div class=\"wsu-hero__background\">\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-image-frame wsu-image-frame--fill\">\n\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/09\/AdobeStock_272582677.jpg\"\n\t\tsrcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/09\/AdobeStock_272582677.jpg 1350w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/09\/AdobeStock_272582677.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/09\/AdobeStock_272582677.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/09\/AdobeStock_272582677.jpg 768w\"\n\t\tsizes=\"(max-width: 1350px) 100vw, 1350px\"\n\t\talt=\"Low angle shot of forest trees.\"\n\t\tstyle=\"object-position: 49% 96%\"\n\t\t\/>\n<\/div>\n\t<\/div>\n\t<div class=\"wsu-hero__overlay\">\n\t<\/div>\n\t<div class=\"wsu-hero__content-wrapper\">\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-hero__inner-content-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"wsu-hero__title-wrapper\">\n\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"wsu-hero__title\">Backyard Forest Stewardship<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<div class=\"wsu-hero__caption\">Chapter 13<\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"wsu-hero__content\">\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\"><strong>Patrick Shults<\/strong>, Extension Forester, Washington State University<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\"><strong>Sean Alexander<\/strong>, Extension Forester, Washington State University<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div style=\"height:10px\" aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"wp-block-spacer\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\" \/>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--sidebar-right\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-font-size--xlarge wsu-heading--style-marked wsu-spacing-after--xxmedium\" id=\"learning-objectives\">Learning Objectives<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Gain a basic understanding of forest ecology and development.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Learn to distinguish between acceptable tree death or damage and a <br>forest health concern.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Gain a basic understanding of multiple elements of forest management, <br>including soils, silviculture, wildlife, water, and forest health.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Topics Covered<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wsu-menu--style-sidebar\">\n<li><a href=\"#ch13-introduction\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#ch13-introduction\">Introduction<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"#ch13-forest-health\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#ch13-forest-health\">Forest Health<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"#ch13-wildlife-diversity\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#ch13-wildlife-diversity\">Wildlife and Habitat Diversity<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"#ch13-soils\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#ch13-soils\">Soils<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"#ch13-silviculture\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#ch13-silviculture\">Silviculture<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"#ch13-wetland-management\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#ch13-wetland-management\">Riparian and Wetland Management<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"#ch13-aesthetics-recreation\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#ch13-aesthetics-recreation\">Aesthetics and Recreation<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"#ch13-forest-cultural-resources\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#ch13-forest-cultural-resources\">Forest Cultural Resources<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"#ch13-forest-products\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#ch13-forest-products\">Non-timber Forest Products<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"#ch13-summary\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#ch13-summary\">Summary<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"#ch13-further-reading\" data-type=\"internal\" data-id=\"#ch13-further-reading\">Further Reading<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\" \/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading  wsu-heading--style-marked\" id=\"ch13-introduction\">Introduction<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#b\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#b\" target=\"_blank\"><strong>Backyard forests<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>, although small, are a critical part of the forest landscape in Washington. These properties are less than five acres in size but contribute to a rich forest mosaic across the state. Many of these parcels occur in more populated areas or in the <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#w\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#w\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>wildland urban interface<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> (WUI). These forests provide wildlife habitat, increase recreation opportunities, and improve air and water quality: the benefits are disproportionate due to the scope of mixed usages. Because they are owned and managed by people with different objectives, backgrounds, and levels of knowledge regarding forest management, it is doubly important that resources be available to forest owners to ensure these forests are properly managed. The following sections describe the most pertinent components of forest management and how they relate to backyard forests with an emphasis on forest health.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading  wsu-heading--style-marked\" id=\"ch13-forest-health\">Forest Health<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>However small a landowner\u2019s parcel is, the forest is governed by a complex ecology and needs to be managed with this mind. When examining forest health, it is very important not to miss the forest for the trees. The behavior of an individual component (tree, shrub, ground flora, etc.) is not isolated from, or necessarily indicative of, the condition of the larger ecosystem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>It is very common for forest owners who are not familiar with forest management to find a dead or dying tree and assume that whatever is ailing it will cause widespread damage to their forest. Barring a few exceptions, this is unlikely to happen. In fact, dead and dying trees are a critical part of a healthy forest and play key roles in wildlife habitat, soil development, and building <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#b\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#b\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>biodiversity<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> and <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#r\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#r\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>resilience<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>. Supporting these components of a forest requires moving away from the approach of protecting each tree individually and instead developing a strategy that supports the forest ecosystem as a whole.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\">A forest\u2019s composition and structure will change dramatically over the course of its life span. This process is what forestry experts call stand development. A <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>stand<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> is a portion of a forest that is similar in species composition, age, and structure, and is distinguishable from other parts of a forest. Stand development describes the process by which a stand will grow and change over time in the absence of major disturbance (such as wildfire). These changes occur in stages, also called \u201cseres\u201d in forestry. The general stages of forest stand development are described below:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Stand establishment<\/strong>: The period in which trees are established on a site after a large-scale disturbance (fire, logging, etc.).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Stem exclusion<\/strong>: This stage of development occurs after <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#c\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#c\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>canopy closure<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> and is characterized by significant competition between trees and high mortality.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Stand maturity\/understory initiation<\/strong>: Maturity is characterized by relatively uninhibited growth in the trees that survive the stem exclusion phase and the establishment of a shade tolerant <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#c\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#c\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>cohort<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> of trees in the understory (Figure 1).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li class=\"wsu-spacing-after--large\"><strong>Complex or old growth stage<\/strong>: Old growth can be defined with some flexibility but typically is defined as a period where the initial cohort of trees begins to die off, leaving large standing and downed woody debris and leading to a diverse composition of tree species, age classes, and sizes. In Washington, it requires 200 years or more for forests to develop these features.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_01-5.jpg\" alt=\"Forest canopy extending skyward.\" class=\"wp-image-2858\" width=\"450\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_01-5.jpg 600w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_01-5-300x200.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 1. When a forest stand reaches maturity, trees are less inhibited by competition and shade tolerant species establish in the understory. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>During parts of this process, tree mortality is a normal part of healthy stand development. Knowing which stage of development a forest is in can help you understand what kind of tree mortality to expect and when to be concerned. The following section will describe some of the most common forest health issues for backyard forests and explain how to know when intervention is required. While reading through the various potential forest health concerns, keep in mind that prevention is better than a cure, and good forest management goes a long way toward ensuring trees have the resources they need to defend themselves.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Insects and Disease<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Insects and disease are key agents of tree mortality in Washington\u2019s forest ecosystems. For the most part, these are native species that serve important ecological functions, such as reducing <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>stand density<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> and creating standing dead trees (also called <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>snags<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>) that serve as wildlife habitat.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Root Diseases<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Root diseases are fungal pathogens that feed on the roots of susceptible species, primarily conifers. These fungi break down the roots over time and spread via root-to-root contact in the soil or by spores, often resulting in the death of multiple trees. Although they can be a hindrance to some management objectives (particularly timber production), from an ecological perspective, the gaps created by root diseases reduce stand density, improve the gene pool of the forest, create snags for wildlife habitat, and create structural and species diversity in a stand.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A well-trained eye can easily identify the signs of root disease in its various stages. Early symptoms include reduced annual height growth, yellowing or sparse foliage, and stress cone crops, which is a year with heavy cone production but the cones are often undersized and poor quality. As the disease and symptoms progress, the entire crown will become increasingly sparse, and the tree will eventually die. It is also common for bark beetles to establish and kill the tree while it is in this weakened state, in which case the foliage quickly dies and turns red. Since their roots have deteriorated, these trees often fall over easily, leaving few fine roots on the stump.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Although some spread by spores, the most commonly occurring root diseases spread primarily by root-to-root contact. As the fungus moves from tree to tree outward from the original infection, it creates a \u201cpocket.\u201d Since the fungus moves rather slowly, it is common to see a gradient of symptoms radiating outward from the hardest-hit center of the pocket.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\">There are three main types of root disease in Washington forests, all of which are native:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Laminated root disease<\/strong> (<em>Phellinus sulphurascens<\/em>) is the most commonly occurring root disease in western Washington. It spreads primarily through root-to-root contact. Douglas-fir and true firs (<em>Abies<\/em> spp.) are highly susceptible. However, it can also affect hemlock and spruce and, occasionally, pines. Pines are tolerant and western redcedar is resistant.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Armillaria<\/strong> (<strong><em>Armillaria ostoyae<\/em><\/strong>) is more common in eastern Washington but has the widest host range, affecting all conifers. It spreads primarily though root-to-root contact.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Heterobasidion<\/strong> (<strong><em>Heterobasidion<\/em><\/strong> spp.) affects all conifers, but hemlock, true firs, spruce, and pines are most susceptible. It spreads primarily through airborne spores.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_02-2.jpg\" alt=\"A stand of evergreen trees and developing understory.\" class=\"wp-image-2859\" width=\"450\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_02-2.jpg 600w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_02-2-300x200.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 2. Root rots create \u201cpockets\u201d of tree mortality, which lead to gaps in the canopy that introduce species diversity. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--default\">Managing root disease is tricky and is not always necessary in backyard forests. As previously mentioned, the gaps created introduce biodiversity to a forest which improves resilience to other forest health issues (Figure 2). However, dead or dying trees can pose a significant safety risk to people or structures. Some landowners can also find them detrimental to the aesthetic and recreational values of their property.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>If management does become necessary, it requires harvesting affected trees, creating a buffer to healthy trees, to prevent spread through root-to-root contact. Root rots cannot be treated by chemical means. Infected stumps and roots can harbor the pathogenic infection for decades, so the disease should be considered a resident of the site. Harvested root disease areas should be replaced with tree species that are tolerant, resistant, or immune to that particular root disease. Alternatively, you can plant smaller gaps with native forbs and shrubs to maintain it as a <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#c\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>canopy gap<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>, which can be beneficial to wildlife. Reach out to an Extension forester for assistance in managing root disease.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Heart and Butt Rots<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--default\">Other fungi will attack different parts of the tree. Heart rots are common in forests, and they feed on the heartwood, which is the innermost wood in the center of the tree. Similarly, butt rots decay the interior wood at the base of the tree. In the later stages of development, these fungi will form \u201cconks\u201d on the bark which disperse spores. These spores enter other trees through open wounds. Risk of widespread inoculation, however, is minimal. Eventually these fungi decay the structural integrity of trees so they often break and fall over, which is why they can pose a significant risk if near structures or high-traffic areas. When located elsewhere, these snags make great habitat for birds and small mammals since they are often hollow.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Bark Beetles<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Bark beetles are very small flying insects that can cause significant damage or mortality in conifer trees. There are many species in Washington, each with a preferred host tree species or genus. Damage caused by beetles occurs when they bore into the tree and then feed on the sugar-rich layers just below the bark. Shortly afterward, they lay eggs which hatch, and larvae continue to feed, causing significant damage. When enough beetles finally girdle the entire circumference of the tree, the tree will die.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Currently, all known bark beetles in Washington are native species that, similar to root disease, have evolved to be an important part of the ecology of forests in the state. In most instances, bark beetles kill trees that are already weakened by another stressor (drought, overstocking, root disease, etc.), so they can actually accelerate forest stand development by <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#t\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#t\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>thinning<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> out poorly performing trees. However, under some conditions, bark beetle populations can boom and develop into an outbreak, leading to significant mortality that includes otherwise healthy trees.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_03-3.jpg\" alt=\"A dying evergreen tree with red needles.\" class=\"wp-image-2860\" width=\"300\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_03-3.jpg 400w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_03-3-200x300.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 3. Crowns of conifers recently killed by bark beetles often flush red. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\">Identifying bark beetle damage requires knowing what to look for. Below are the common signs and symptoms of bark beetle damage:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Pitching<\/strong>: The flushing of a sticky, resinous defense compound through the holes in the bark created by beetles. This is a defense mechanism of the tree and may mean it is successfully extirpating the insects.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Boring holes and frass<\/strong>: Small holes, generally only a few millimeters or less in diameter, indicate the exit or entry of a beetle. It is also common to see frass (boring dust) in and around the holes. Holes caused by birds like sapsuckers are often mistaken for bark beetles, but those are much larger and tend to occur in horizontal rows on the tree.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Red foliage\/sudden death<\/strong>: The foliage of a conifer turning red, often within just a few days, is a common symptom of beetle kill (Figure 3).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li class=\"wsu-spacing-after--large\"><strong>Egg galleries<\/strong>: As a beetle feeds on the inner layers of the tree, it will lay eggs in the chewed path it leaves behind directly under the bark. This is called an egg gallery (Figure 4). The larvae hatch and begin feeding and creating their own larval galleries. Looking below the bark to find these galleries is the best way to confirm beetle activity and the only way to determine the species of beetle, since each species has a unique gallery pattern.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-full is-resized wsu-spacing-after--large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_04_12.jpg\" alt=\"Douglas-fir beetle gallery.\nFir engraver beetle gallery.\" class=\"wp-image-2861\" width=\"1160\" height=\"509\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_04_12.jpg 980w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_04_12-300x132.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_04_12-768x337.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1160px) 100vw, 1160px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 4. Doug-fir beetle (left) and fir engraver beetle (right) are two common bark beetles with unique host preferences and egg gallery patterns. Photos: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>It is important to note that trees can also pitch as a symptom of root disease, physical damage, or diameter growth as the bark expands. Additionally, red foliage can be a symptom of drought damage. However, if both symptoms are present, it is a good indicator of beetle damage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Prevention is the best form of bark beetle management and should be focused on eliminating the potential for the establishment of large numbers of beetles resulting in outbreak populations. The best way to do this is to maintain tree vigor, which is primarily done by ensuring forests are not overstocked. Monitoring the amount and timing of fresh dead wood entering the ecosystem can also help prevent establishment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bark beetles behave very differently between the dry forests east of the Cascades and moist forests to the west. In western Washington, conditions for tree growth are generally better so trees have an added advantage in defending themselves from beetles. As a result, beetle outbreaks in this region generally only kill a handful of trees. Managing inputs of dead green wood is often most important after heavy wind events. For instance, having multiple large (greater than eight inches in diameter) Douglas-fir trees downed from a winter windstorm could allow the establishment of Douglas-fir beetle (<em>Dendroctonus pseudotsugae<\/em>). Cutting these trees into firewood lengths promptly after the trees have fallen will accelerate the drying of the interior layers so they cannot serve as a food source.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_05-2.jpg\" alt=\"Dead and dying trees flushing red and interspersed in an otherwise healthy looking forest.\" class=\"wp-image-2864\" width=\"450\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_05-2.jpg 600w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_05-2-300x200.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 5. Bark beetle damage in an interior Pacific Northwest forest. Photo: William M. Ciesla, Forest Health Management International, Bugwood.org.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--default\">In eastern Washington, bark beetles are generally more destructive (Figure 5). Establishment and outbreaks are more difficult to avoid, but the principles of prevention are the same. Here, management of green wood inputs includes <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>slash<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> and small-diameter trees, as well as downed large trees. Timing is also much more important. Reducing the availability of downed green wood is most important while the beetles are flying, which is generally from April to September. October through December is the safest time to create and leave slash on the ground. This will give ample time for it to dry. If landowners create slash between January and September, the material needs to be removed from the site, burned, or chipped.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Once beetles are established and prevention is no longer an option, management is very difficult. Chemical treatments are neither effective nor practical. Finding and removing trees as they become infested can help reduce populations but often these outbreaks must run their course until food becomes limited, causing populations to break and subside.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Climate change and the resulting hotter, drier summers in the region relate importantly to beetle populations. Additionally, dense forests that are susceptible to, or are currently experiencing an outbreak, can become hotpots for wildfires to ignite and spread. See the Climate Change section for more information.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Defoliating Insects, Foliar Diseases, and Mistletoes<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Insects and diseases that affect tree foliage can cause widespread damage but very rarely result in the death of mature trees. This damage is very visible, so it often becomes a source of unwarranted concern. Understanding the behavior of these pests and some basic forest management may prevent unwanted damage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--large\">Defoliating insects generally go through periodic population peaks which correlate with foliar damage. In most cases, peak populations sustain for a year or two, then break and subside. Most prefer deciduous trees, but some will host on conifers. Deciduous trees can be completely defoliated and flush out a new set of leaves within a single growing season. Conifers do not bounce back as readily. Long-term damage or mortality resulting from repeated defoliation is rare. See Table 1 for a list of common foliar issues in Washington.<\/p>\n\n\n<span id=\"tablepress-83-description\" class=\"tablepress-table-description tablepress-table-description-id-83\">Table 1. Common foliar diseases and insects and their hosts in Washington.<\/span>\n\n<table id=\"tablepress-83\" class=\"tablepress tablepress-id-83\" aria-describedby=\"tablepress-83-description\">\n<thead>\n<tr class=\"row-1 odd\">\n\t<th class=\"column-1\">Name<\/th><th class=\"column-2\">Host<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody class=\"row-hover\">\n<tr class=\"row-2 even\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Alder flea beetle<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">Red alder<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-3 odd\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Cedar leaf blight<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">Western redcedar<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-4 even\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Cooley spruce gall adelgid<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">Douglas-fir, Engelmann spruce, Sitka spruce, and ornamental spruces<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-5 odd\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Douglas-fir tussock moth<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">Douglas-fir and true firs* preferred<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-6 even\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Forest tent caterpillar\/western tent caterpillar<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">Broadleaf trees<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-7 odd\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Hemlock woolly adelgid<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">Western hemlock, mountain hemlock<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-8 even\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Larch casebearer<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">Larch<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-9 odd\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Leafminer<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">Broadleaf trees<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-10 even\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Rhabdocline needle cast<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">Douglas-fir<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-11 odd\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Silver spotted tiger moth<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">All conifers (Douglas-fir preferred)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-12 even\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Swiss needle cast<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">Douglas-fir (generally within 25 miles of the coast)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr class=\"row-13 odd\">\n\t<td class=\"column-1\">Western spruce budworm<\/td><td class=\"column-2\">Douglas-fir, true firs*, Engelmann spruce, western larch<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<!-- #tablepress-83 from cache -->\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-font-size--small wsu-spacing-after--large\">*True firs are those in the <em>Abies<\/em> genus.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mistletoes are a common problem in eastern Washington forests but also occur on hemlocks and Oregon oak in western Washington. They are a parasitic plant that forms clusters of yellow foliage, creating dense, large brooms in trees. Hosts include Douglas-fir, true firs, western hemlock, ponderosa pine, and western larch. Mistletoe-infected trees can create good wildlife habitat but can also spread and create a forest health issue. Control requires removing the host branch when possible, cutting severely infected trees, and favoring non-hosts.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Foliar diseases in Washington are generally restricted to needle casts and blights. While there are many of them, few will result in the death of a tree. Generally, they are correlated with environmental conditions, such as a particularly wet spring.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Management of foliar insects and disease is usually only done to protect high-value trees in a landscape setting. For these trees, chemical treatments can be a viable option but should be done with the help of a certified <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#a\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#a\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>arborist<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>. In the context of a forest, chemical treatments are not practical or effective, so forest owners must resort to silvicultural methods to prevent or manage this damage. Proper thinning and stand density management can promote good airflow which will reduce instances of foliar disease, reduce tree stress, and encourage vigorous growth, which will allow a tree to bounce back from foliar damage more easily. Most foliar insects go through \u201cboom-and-bust\u201d cycles where damage can be significant for a year or two before their populations break. In these scenarios, the damage to trees is usually short-term and they are able to recover quickly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Some scenarios may require shifting away from certain species in a forest. For instance, Swiss needle cast (<em>Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii<\/em>) is a commonly occurring fungal disease in Douglas-fir growing near the coast or in wet, foggy areas. The moist conditions make it very difficult to prevent this damage, so favoring tolerant or immune species on that site would be recommended.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Invasive Insects and Diseases<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Invasive insects and disease have caused immense damage to forests throughout the country. These pests are often introduced via plant or packing materials. Only one percent of all introduced species successfully establish and become invasive. However, because native trees have not evolved natural defenses to these pests, those few species can permanently alter the composition of a landscape. White pine blister rust (<em>Cronartium ribicola<\/em>) is an invasive fungus that was established in Washington in the early 1900s and has drastically reduced white pine populations in the state since then. Avid pruning of the lower branches on existing white pines can reduce the instance of disease, but management is difficult or impossible on the landscape scale.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_06-2.jpg\" alt=\"A hole in the tree\u2019s outer bark shows an arched top and flatter bottom.\" class=\"wp-image-2867\" width=\"450\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_06-2.jpg 600w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_06-2-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_06-2-150x150.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 6. Emerald ash borer attacks ash trees and leaves D-shaped exit holes in the wood. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--default\">Preventing the establishment of future invasive pests and disease is an effort that all small forest owners can and should partake in. Having trained eyes on the ground monitoring for these pests and reporting unusual tree damage or mortality is how these threats are discovered, isolated, and eradicated before spreading to the broader landscape. There are several potential insects and diseases that could establish in Washington State, including emerald ash borer, sudden oak death, and the elongate hemlock scale (Figure 6). To learn more about these and other invasive insects as well as how to report potential sightings, go to the <a href=\"https:\/\/invasivespecies.wa.gov\/\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/invasivespecies.wa.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Washington Invasive Species Council (opens in new window)<\/a> website.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Other Forest Health Diseases<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>This section only covers a small handful of the most common and most damaging insects and diseases that affect trees in Washington. There is a long list of cankers, tip weevils, aphids, rusts, pitch moths, and more that may impact backyard forests, but, aside from <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#i\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#i\" target=\"_blank\"><strong>invasive species <\/strong>(opens in new window)<\/a>, most will cause limited or temporary damage. There are several guides available to help identify forest insects and disease and provide management advice, such as the <em>Field Guide to The Common Diseases and Insect Pests of Oregon and Washington Conifers<\/em> by Elizabeth Wilhite and <em>Common Tree Diseases of British Columbia<\/em> by Allen et al. Additionally, the <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dnr.wa.gov\/foresthealth\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.dnr.wa.gov\/foresthealth\" target=\"_blank\">Washington Department of Natural Resources (opens in new window)<\/a> conducts an annual statewide forest health survey each year.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Noxious Weeds<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Similar to invasive insects and disease, a small number of introduced plant species have been able to establish in natural environments and outcompete native species for their ecological <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#n\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#n\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>niches<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>. These plants are very difficult to control and can severely impact forest health and stand development. For most small forest owners, fighting <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#n\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#n\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>noxious weeds<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> is a lifelong effort that requires ongoing monitoring and removal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In Washington, weeds that are destructive, competitive, or are difficult to control are placed on the Noxious Weed List and are grouped into three classes (Class A, B, or C). Depending on the class of the weed and the county they are in, landowners may be legally obligated to remove it from their property. For more information on state regulations regarding noxious weeds, go to the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nwcb.wa.gov\/about-the-washington-state-noxious-weed-control-board\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.nwcb.wa.gov\/about-the-washington-state-noxious-weed-control-board\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Washington State Noxious Weed Control Board (opens in new window)<\/a> or the local county\u2019s noxious weed program website.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_07-1.jpg\" alt=\"Reed canary grass dominates a clearing in a forest.\" class=\"wp-image-2870\" width=\"450\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_07-1.jpg 600w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_07-1-300x200.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 7. Reed canary grass outcompetes native species in wet areas. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--default\">In western Washington, forest owners are likely to be fighting different weeds over the course of a forest\u2019s development. Shade intolerant weeds like Himalayan (or Armenian) blackberry, cutleaf blackberry, Scotch broom, and reed canary grass are most common in recently planted or young forests (Figure 7). These require temporary vegetation management while the trees grow and establish a canopy that will ultimately shade them out. Shade tolerant noxious weeds like English ivy and English holly, however, can easily establish beneath a forest canopy and require regular monitoring and removal.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In the drier forests of eastern Washington, common noxious weeds include knapweed, tansy, Dalmatian toadflax, and skeleton weed. Because these forests are so dry, native perennial grasses such as bluebunch wheatgrass or Idaho fescue that historically dominated open grasslands and meadows are now being choked out by annual invasives such as downy bromes (cheatgrass), medusahead, and ventenata.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\">Fighting noxious weeds can sometimes seem like a losing battle. As mentioned before, it is likely to be a lifelong effort, but the following are some basic tips and practices that can make this effort a little more manageable:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Keep yard landscaping and forests separate. This means restricting the planting of any non-native and ornamental species to the yard and leaving the forest and forest edges to develop naturally. Similarly, do not dump potted plants, brush, or other plant material from landscaped areas in a forest.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Visit all parts of a backyard forest at least a few times a year. Monitor for new patches of noxious weeds and remove them before they get larger.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Use integrated pest management techniques to remove or control noxious weeds. Mechanical and chemical methods both have their place. Some landowners have an aversion to pesticide use, which will mean more physical labor like hand pulling and mowing. Pesticides should only be used according to their label and according to federal, state, and county guidelines.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Some control methods can be effective for controlling certain weeds but may encourage the growth and spread of others. Make sure you have properly identified a weed and researched control methods before taking any action.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>After removing noxious weeds from a forest, replant with native forbs and shrubs to reestablish a healthy understory layer and provide a competitive advantage to native species.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Animal Damage<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>For guidance and recommendations on identifying, removing, and disposing of noxious weeds, contact your local county noxious weed board. They may be able to make a visit, loan out tools like weed wrenches, and help source funding to control noxious weeds on the property.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"400\" height=\"600\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_08.jpg\" alt=\"Holes pepper the entire trunk of a tree nearly uniformly. \" class=\"wp-image-2871\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_08.jpg 400w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_08-200x300.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 8. Sapsuckers cause damage to the exterior of the bark, but trees are often able to recover, even from severe damage. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--default\">Damage to trees by animals is an inevitable and, in many cases, acceptable phenomenon. Some of the milder forms of damage can occur from deer or elk rubbing a tree with their antlers, a sapsucker or woodpecker drilling holes into a tree, or losing a handful of small-diameter trees to a beaver building a dam (Figure 8). All of these forms of damage are normal and typically do not impede forest functions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In some scenarios, however, animal damage can be widespread and slow stand development. The most common example occurs when landowners try to plant trees. Browse damage from deer and elk on young trees is the most common form of animal damage to trees and will slow growth or could kill the tree if the damage is significant. When planting trees in grassy areas, mice, voles, and other rodents will chew the bark at the base of the trees, often girdling and killing them. Protecting young trees with planting tubes, wire caging, or other methods is critical to tree establishment. Removing grassy vegetation around trees can also eliminate cover for rodents, while reducing competition for moisture from the grass.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In western Washington, black bears can cause significant damage to young conifer plantations. In the early spring when food is scarce, bears will claw off the bark of trees and feed on the sugar-rich interior layers. In some circumstances, bear damage can be widespread, covering several acres and killing many trees. This form of damage is more common in areas with high populations of bear and on properties adjacent to larger swaths of forest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Environmental Stressors<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Extreme Weather<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>There are several environmental factors that can cause damage, stress, or mortality to trees. In western Washington, windstorms are a common source of damage to trees and are capable of breaking tops, branches, or, in extreme circumstances, blowing down large patches of trees. Snow and ice often build up weight on the tops and branches of trees, also causing breakage. Hail can cause localized damage to branches and foliage on trees that may also provide an entry point for fungus and other pests.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Hydrology<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Another common form of damage stems from changes in hydrology. Flooding, rivers changing course, beavers building dams, and even changes in land use in the surrounding area can affect how water behaves on a property. These changes in hydrology can have significant impacts on trees, often causing mortality when the change is severe.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"400\" height=\"600\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_09.jpg\" alt=\"The top half of a western redcedar tree is bare or has reddish foliage.\" class=\"wp-image-2872\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_09.jpg 400w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_09-200x300.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 9. Topkill in western redcedar as a result of drought damage. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Drought<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Abnormally dry periods can cause significant stress in forests or compound existing stressors. Direct drought damage in individual trees typically appears as top-down foliage loss and crown dieback, but can also cause dieback in the ends of branches (called \u201cflagging\u201d in conifers because they turn red). This is because it is more difficult for trees to deliver moisture to its extremities when water becomes scarce (Figure 9).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Some of the worst impacts stem from the weakened state in which trees are left after a drought. Drought can leave them more susceptible to native pests, like the bark beetles, root disease, and defoliators mentioned previously. In fact, many peaks in bark beetle populations are correlated with periods of drought. The greater frequency of abnormally hot and dry summers in the Pacific Northwest is thought to be the cause behind the decline of western hemlock, western redcedar, and bigleaf maple in the region, at least partly due to this combination of increased moisture competition and susceptibility to pests.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Watering a forest during periods of drought is not practical, so landowners must rely on prevention and mitigation measures. Stand density management, or the management of the number of trees in a forest, is the most important tool at a landowner\u2019s disposal for ensuring trees have adequate resources and are facing minimal competition. Maintaining a healthy number of trees on a given site can prevent multiple forest health concerns. This is discussed more in the Overstocking section and Thinning for Forest Health section.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Climate Change<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>The effects of climate change have become increasingly apparent in the Pacific Northwest. Unusually hot summers, extended dry seasons, and instances of extreme weather have increased and are expected to continue this trend in the coming decades. This will have significant impacts on forest health and management.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Instances of extreme weather, like floods, high winds, or ice storms, have the potential to cause significant localized damage. However, temperature and precipitation trends have the most potential for widespread impacts on forest health, primarily because of the effects from moisture stress. The forecasted hotter summer temperatures are particularly worrisome. Hotter summer temperatures accelerate evaporation and moisture loss in the soil, leading to significant drought stress in forests, especially if those forests are overstocked to begin with. As discussed in the Drought section, cumulative stress from low moisture availability over multiple years leaves trees highly susceptible to other pests. This cycle of damage is already being seen throughout much of the state on tree species that are not particularly drought tolerant. Much of this damage has been seen in areas that have existing stressors. Trees growing in yards, forest edges, near roadways and other developed areas all already face challenges with moisture availability, and so the added stress compounds this problem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--default\">Looking to the future, forest management in smaller backyard forests that anticipates and mitigates some of this potential damage will rely heavily on species selection when planting trees and, again, proper stand density management. Figure 10 describes the drought tolerance of commonly planted native Washington trees.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full wsu-spacing-before--large wsu-spacing-after--large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1000\" height=\"237\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_10.jpg\" alt=\"A horizontal spectrum illustrates tree species ranging from Drought Tolerant on the left to Drought Intolerant on the right. On the far left, under most drought tolerant: Ponderosa pine, Oregon white oak, Pacific madrone, and Lodgepole pine. Moving slightly right: Douglas-fir (eastern WA). In the middle: Western white pine, Western larch, Oregon ash, and Douglas-fir (western WA). Toward the right, under more drought intolerant: Noble fir, Red alder, Sitka spruce, Bigleaf maple, Grand fir, Western hemlock, and Western redcedar. The chart uses a red arrow at the bottom pointing left for &quot;Drought Tolerant&quot; and right for &quot;Drought Intolerant,&quot; with tree species placed above the arrow according to their relative drought tolerance.\" class=\"wp-image-2873\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_10.jpg 1000w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_10-300x71.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_10-768x182.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1000px) 100vw, 1000px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 10. Drought tolerance of common, native Washington trees. Graphic: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>A step further would be to choose trees with genetics from a more warmer, drier seed zone. A seed zone describes a region that trees of a given species can easily be transferred within without risking poor adaptation to a new site. For instance, Douglas-fir grown in northwestern Oregon would not easily adapt to being grown in northwestern Washington. However, as temperatures continue to trend hotter, it has become acceptable to choose trees from seed zones where winter low temperatures do not vary by more than 2\u00b0C.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Many landowners have become interested in what is called assisted species migration, which is the intentional planting of tree species not native to an area in anticipation of a future climate similar to where they originated. An example of this would be planting giant sequoia trees in western Washington because it is expected that this region will eventually resemble their native climate. While it is generally not harmful to experiment with planting a small handful of trees, this practice is not backed by research and should not be encouraged on any significant scale until it is. It is true that the climate in Washington will look different in fifty years, but these trees still have to survive for several decades in our current conditions. Moreover, expecting that our region will resemble southerly climates is an oversimplification of climate projections and does not factor in unpredictable variability in precipitation, temperature, and extreme weather.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Wildfire<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Forest fires are a major concern in Washington. They pose a threat to human lives and structures. However, it is very important to remember that fire has been an integral part of forest ecology in this area for millennia and should not be absent from the landscape. In fact, one of the main drivers of abnormally destructive wildfires in the dry forests of eastern Washington has been the suppression of fire over the last century, leading to unnaturally high <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#f\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#f\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>fuel loads<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>. To better understand the function and behavior of wildfire in the present day, we need to examine the historic fire regimes in the dry eastern forests and the moist forests west of the Cascades.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Historically, eastern dry forests experienced low to moderate severity fires on frequent rotation (5\u201350 years). These surface fires would destroy understory vegetation while the fire-tolerant overstory trees (e.g., Ponderosa pine) would remain dominant. The frequency of fire prevented the accrual of fuels, mitigating the risk of large fires. The last century of fire exclusion combined with hotter, drier summers have led to more high-severity fires in the region.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>While the severity of a fire in eastern Washington is largely driven by the availability of fuels, western Washington forests have naturally high fuel loads. They are also generally wetter and, as a result, fairly fire-resistant. Because of this, fires are few and far between in this region, often only returning to an area after several centuries. However, when fires do occur, they are often catastrophic (examples include the Yacolt and Tillamook burns in the early 1900s) and difficult or impossible to influence with forest management. These fires occur when three factors align: an abnormally dry summer, an ignition, and a dry east wind event. Between climate change and a greater human presence in the region, dry summers and ignition sources are more frequent, making it more likely for these factors to align in the coming decades.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This is the case for much of western Washington forests, but there are exceptions. Dry Douglas-fir-pine or oak-conifer forests in the Puget Trough, San Juan Islands, or Columbia Gorge are a little more fire-prone and require fuels management similar to eastern Washington. Regardless of location, thinning overstory trees to a healthy density can build fire resilience.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For both eastern and western Washington, protecting homes from wildfire will look more or less the same. This is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 24: Fire-Resistant Landscaping for the Home and Community. Activities to manage a backyard forest to mitigate potential damage from a wildfire, however, would look very different between the two regions. In eastern Washington, the reduction of fuel loads, particularly fine fuels, and stand density to reduce the severity of a fire is much more important (Figure 11). If a landowner in eastern Washington is concerned about the level of fuels in a backyard forest, they should contact their Washington Department of Natural Resources office to get in touch with a forester who can assist them.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_11.jpg\" alt=\"Two firefighters survey a line of smoke adjacent to a patchwork evergreen forest at the base of a slope.\" class=\"wp-image-2875\" width=\"450\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_11.jpg 600w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_11-300x200.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 11. Prescribed fire is an ecologically appropriate practice to reduce fuel loads in dry eastern Washington forests. Photo: Sean Alexander, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Throughout most of the western moist forests, reducing understory vegetation and fuel loads would degrade the natural ecology. This would also be impractical, considering how fast vegetation grows there. The exception to this is in the area immediately around the home (within 100 feet), where reducing fuel loads can mitigate some of the radiative heat and protect structures from ignition, as well as along roads and driveways where ignitions are more common.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Culturally, wildfires are often considered an eastern Washington problem in the state, but as the climate continues to change, fires are likely to become more frequent in both regions. The primary focus for backyard forest owners living in the wildland urban interface should be protecting their homes and loved ones.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Overstocking<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>The term \u201coverstocked\u201d refers to having more trees in a forest than the site can sustain without incurring significant competition for resources. In eastern Washington, overstocking can also be a reference to wildfire risk and having a high fuel load. This is generally the result of the establishment of shade-tolerant trees in the understory beyond the early stages of <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#f\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#f\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>forest development<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_12.jpg\" alt=\"A spindly stand of uniform trees borders a clearcut.\" class=\"wp-image-2876\" width=\"450\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_12.jpg 600w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_12-300x200.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 12. Severely overstocked forests like this one have minimal or no understory growth and poor height-to-diameter ratios. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Regardless of the location, having too many trees on a site can cause significant stress, leading to issues previously discussed like bark beetle outbreaks and root disease. One of the main reasons that forests become overstocked is that after harvesting forests are replanted at a high density. This forces trees to prioritize height growth and establish a closed canopy, which in turn produces quality timber. After the canopy closes, competition becomes excessive, and density needs to be reduced. When forests are planted equidistantly, with the same species, and all from similar genetic stock, it becomes difficult for an individual tree to outcompete others. The result is a forest that cannot self-thin and requires mechanical management to reduce the number of stems. Failing to do so leads to \u201cdog-hair\u201d stands of trees with poor growth, small crowns, significant stress, and dependence on one another to withstand wind (Figure 12). If left for too long, thinning can lead to significant blowdown or stem breakage due to poor root structures and height-to-diameter ratios.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\">The density of a forest is usually measured as an estimate of trees per acre (TPA). The TPA at which a forest stand becomes overstocked varies based on the site conditions, but there are some key signs to look out for that might indicate it is time to thin a forest:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Minimal or no understory vegetation<\/strong>: The type of vegetation will vary based on location, but healthy forests typically have a forb and shrub layer beneath an overstory canopy.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Poor height-to-diameter ratios<\/strong>: Trees will become abnormally tall and thin, or \u201cwhip-like,\u201d with a relatively small diameter.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Poor live crown ratios (LCR)<\/strong>: This refers to the portion of the total height of a tree that contains living foliage (for example, a 100-foot-tall tree with a 20-foot living crown has a 20% LCR). In conifers, maintaining at least a 40% crown is ideal for growth and tree health.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Overstocking is a very common issue in young (10- to 30-year-old) <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#p\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#p\" target=\"_blank\"><strong>plantation forests<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>. These are often properties previously owned by industrial timber companies that were divided into small parcels and sold sometime between reforestation and a scheduled thinning. Landowners with <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#o\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#o\" target=\"_blank\"><strong>overstocked forests<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> should reach out to their regional Extension forester to determine if thinning is needed on the property.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Summary<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Forest health is a fluid and dynamic component of forest management. For most backyard forests owners, the most important lesson to learn is that the health of an individual tree is not necessarily representative of the health of an entire forest. Tree mortality is critical to ecosystem function and serves as a gateway for establishing biodiversity, <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>structural diversity<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>, and wildlife habitat. That said, forests are also facing more challenges than ever before. Climate change, wildfire, urban and rural land development, and invasive species can all influence small acreage forests. Diligent monitoring and an in-depth understanding of forest development are key to being able to identify when intervention is necessary. More importantly, it\u2019s essential to know where to go for additional information and support. The WSU Extension Forestry program\u2019s goal is to facilitate the stewardship of small forests throughout Washington by engaging landowners in the process. If you have questions, don\u2019t hesitate to reach out to your local Extension forester.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading  wsu-heading--style-marked\" id=\"ch13-wildlife-diversity\">Wildlife and Habitat Diversity<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Owners of backyard forests are not only managing trees but they are also managing the habitat that many wildlife species rely on. Compared to plants, wildlife require a greater diversity of habitat features to survive. Broadly, most species require three general features to survive: food, water, and shelter. However, every species has a role within an ecosystem, and this is called its niche.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Species often have a range of conditions in which they could potentially survive and remain viable. Some species, called generalists, have a wide range of habitats that they can utilize. Generalists include white-tailed deer, red-tailed hawks, barred owls, or coyotes. Oftentimes, these species will exhibit a wide species distribution and can exist in a variety of habitats. Other species, those confined to a very specific set of conditions that make up their realized niche, are called specialists. This includes pygmy rabbits, spotted owls, beavers, or three-toed woodpeckers. Specialist species will often have either a very narrow range of distribution, confined to the habitat or resource they require, or will display migratory tendencies for seasonal access to specific habitats for life traits (e.g., reproduction and breeding, food resource, or climate requirements). Due to their strict requirement for a specific habitat feature, many specialist species are listed on state and federal threatened and endangered (T&amp;E) species lists.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>When managing wildlife, first identify the target species you are trying to benefit. If you identify a T&amp;E species on or near a property, you may want to work with a wildlife biologist to identify what habitat features this species requires and work to protect those areas. For more broad conservation of wildlife, managing for habitat diversity is the best way to promote wildlife populations. For every type of forest habitat structure, there is a wildlife species that benefits.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>By creating diversity within a backyard forest, you can create a wide range of potential habitats and sustain a diverse array of wildlife species. There are multiple forms of diversity in forest management. Species diversity is the most well-known form and refers to the variety of tree, shrub, and forb species growing on a site. However, there is also structural diversity, which refers to the level of complexity in the arrangement of a forest, and means having trees and shrubs of different ages, heights, and forms. Additionally, horizontal diversity refers to changes in species composition and structure between different areas of a forest. Creating a forest with these kinds of diversity attracts wildlife and can be done with active management. Below are a few key habitat features that can be created to benefit several wildlife species in Washington.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-large is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_13-517x1024.jpg\" alt=\"A snag in a forest pocket.\" class=\"wp-image-2878\" width=\"388\" height=\"768\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_13-517x1024.jpg 517w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_13-152x300.jpg 152w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_13.jpg 600w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 388px) 100vw, 388px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 13. Standing dead trees (also called snags) provide critical habitat for wildlife. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Snags<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>There is a common misconception that dead and dying trees on the landscape are malignant and a sign of an unhealthy forest. At a landscape level, a large population of dying trees can be a concern. However, at a low frequency, dead trees become a keystone feature for many wildlife species that live in forested areas. A snag is a standing dead tree that is or can be utilized by wildlife (Figure 13).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The most common species of wildlife that utilize snags are woodpeckers. Several woodpecker species are considered keystone species, meaning they create a habitat structure utilized by other species that cannot create that particular habitat feature. Initially, following death, mortality agents and post-mortality agents, such as bark beetles, will spread throughout the tree.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Woodpeckers will find and feed on the insects below the bark by using finely tuned hearing and specialized beaks. Many woodpeckers, such as the widely known pileated woodpecker, will then create cavities for nesting within the standing snag as it begins to decay. Many other bird species, such as the northern flicker or red-breasted sapsucker, will also feed on insects found beneath the bark. Several bird species, such as bluebirds and owls, or small mammals, like squirrels and mustelid species, are known as secondary cavity nesters. They take over the cavity once the primary excavators have moved on. Most snags are formed naturally, but if a landowner notices a lack of snags on their property, they could create some. Some arborists will create snags by climbing and topping trees. They can also be created by girdling trees at the base.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Excellent species for snags include fir trees and conifers susceptible to heart and root diseases and broadleaf trees with thin bark that are easily accessible to insect-eating birds. However, it is important to remember that snags are a falling hazard and should not be purposefully created where they are a hazard to people or property.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_14.jpg\" alt=\"Someone stands next to a stacked pile of brush and woody debris.\" class=\"wp-image-2879\" width=\"423\" height=\"358\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_14.jpg 564w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_14-300x254.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 423px) 100vw, 423px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 14. Habitat piles are easy to build and can be used with downed wood available in a forest. Photo: Sean Alexander, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Logs and Piles<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Once a snag has fallen, it will begin to provide a new role for habitat. For wildlife, a clean forest is often an uninhabitable forest. On top of the fact that woody debris on the forest floor is an important source of nutrients for plants, it also becomes an important habitat feature for denning, cover, or forage. Several carnivore species, such as bobcats and bears, will create dens within hollowed out logs and piles. For bears, these logs become especially important during the spring season, as they are reachable sources of insects for the bears coming out of hibernation. Large logs also provide small areas of shade for many insects and other invertebrate species. Small mammals, such as snowshoe hare, rely heavily on complex arrangements of downed woody debris for security and cover from larger predators like the lynx. A great practice when thinning outside of the danger season for bark beetles is to leave small- and medium-sized logs and branches in piles spread out across a forest (Figure 14). By using large logs on the bottom and leaving space underneath, medium sized mammals may utilize this feature as a temporary den.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Legacies and Old Trees<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>When adjacent to the home, large trees may pose a danger or safety risk. Out in the forest, large trees are an important feature for wildlife. Snags are the best source of insects for many birds but may not always be available. In this case, grooves in the surface of the bark can become galleries of movement for insects and provide a supplemental source of food for wildlife. Many species, specifically those that are predators and hunt for food, rely on wide ranges of sites to find prey. Species like owls, fishers, or hawks utilize large branches for perching and watching the forest floor. Additionally, these large branches become optimal places for making nests, especially for bald eagles, which can have a nest up to five feet in diameter. Large trees will also eventually become either snags or logs, and many creatures require large enough cavities for nesting or denning.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Open Areas<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>While it may seem counterintuitive, openings and gaps within forest canopies are essential for healthy wildlife diversity. Plants require light for photosynthesis, and forests with a dense canopy will limit the diversity of plants in the understory. This is especially critical in areas of eastern Washington, as many of these species are not adapted to shady conditions and dense forests can become barren of food and cover resources. Grazing and browsing species, such as elk and deer, require high levels of forage biomass to survive. Openings provide these areas of biodiversity and food resources. Additionally, large openings create definite edges. Edges are areas where forest structures and tree lines abruptly change to open grassy or shrub dominated conditions. Ungulate species tend to move along edge lines for security and quick escape routes, and many bird of prey species perch along edges and watch for small rodent species, which move and survive within the cover of the understory plants flourishing in the openings.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Patches and Clumps<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Alternatively, some species tend to prefer the security of a closed canopy forest. During the summer months, thermal cover is critical to maintaining cool body temperatures when water is scarce. During the winter, stands with a closed canopy capture and limit snow depth on the ground. Walking through deep snow uses a lot of energy; therefore, wide-ranging species will move within dense forests to minimize this effort. Small songbirds will build nests within dense clumps to protect themselves against predatory species feeding on their eggs. As stated before, ungulates, which use open areas for feed, also prefer covered areas when they are resting for security. Stalking species will stay within dense areas for hunting so they can move prey without being seen.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_15.jpg\" alt=\"A diverse composition of trees, shrubs, and forbs.\" class=\"wp-image-2880\" width=\"545\" height=\"409\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_15.jpg 727w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_15-300x225.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 545px) 100vw, 545px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 15. A diverse composition of trees, shrubs, and forbs, as well as structural diversity, are important for sustaining wildlife on a site. Photo: Sean Alexander, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Shrubs and Grasses<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The shrub, grass, and forb communities also contribute greatly to habitat diversity (Figure 15). From a top-down hierarchical order, primary and tertiary predators in the food web feed on smaller mammals, whose diets are often composed of either plants or even smaller mammals. Therefore, when promoting wildlife diversity, the goal is to manage from the bottom-up by maintaining a healthy and abundant source of forage. Shrubs, which often succeed in gaps and openings, can provide all three of the necessary components for wildlife (food, water, shelter). Passerine birds utilize shrubs for nesting and cover. Ungulates will stick to shrub cover when moving across gaps in uncertain areas. In drier parts of the season, many species will rely on shrub forage for a slow, but consistent, supply of water from the foliage. Many rodent and bird species either build nests in grassy areas or use grasses and small diameter shrub twigs for nest building. Some species, based on the type of digestive system they have, can only eat either grasses or shrubs. The goal for many species is to gain enough weight as stored calories that they can last through the winter when resources are scarce. Just like managing for pollinators, planting species that hold leaves and flowers late into the season can help increase the food supply, ultimately helping to keep a healthy and thriving population of wildlife.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Other Activities<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>There are several other strategies landowners can implement to help wildlife populations. Bird boxes are a common device that landowners can build around their forest. A healthy forest with an abundance of snags ultimately does not need the assistance of bird boxes. However, sometimes landowners may be replanting forests or do not want to add additional snags. In these cases, bird boxes can be helpful in creating small cavities. When creating bird boxes there are a few things to keep in mind. Use aluminum nails and eliminate the use of lead-based products. Like humans, lead toxicity is deadly for most wildlife species. Aluminum is also a softer metal and, for safety, can easily be cut through with a power saw if the tree is being removed. Remember to create boxes with holes of various sizes. Not all wildlife creatures utilize the same size cavity entrance. Finally, nest boxes require regular maintenance. These boxes can become sources of disease transmission and will require, at the minimum, yearly cleaning to keep them from spreading further disease. Sometimes, landowners may have to deal with an area that has recently been harvested or is deficient in understory plant forage. A common method to minimize invasion from weeds is to spread a seed mixture. Do not, however, create feeding areas or place bales of hay during the winter. Deer cannot digest hay but will eat it. Ultimately, deer will become bloated and starve because they cannot digest enough nutrients to survive. Food troughs and other central sources of forage supplement will attract wildlife. This may lead to an artificial increase in the population of wildlife in that area, increasing competition for native and natural food sources. Therefore, once a human-supplied forage source has been depleted, population numbers will be too high, leading to competition and mortality.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading  wsu-heading--style-marked\" id=\"ch13-soils\">Soils<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>It may go without saying that soils are the foundation of the forest. The properties of soil at a given site dictate what type of trees, shrubs, and other vegetation will grow there as well as how well they will grow. Therefore, protecting and ensuring the proper function of forest soils is critical to forest ownership.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>One of the first things a small forest owner should do is assess the soils on their site. Most landowners have some familiarity with the soils on their site through gardening and landscaping activities. However, programs like the Natural Resources Conservation Service provide powerful tools like the <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov\/\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\">Web Soil Survey (opens in new window)<\/a> that can help forest owners achieve a better understanding of their site (Figure 16). For assistance with navigating this website, see the Extension publication Forest Soil Data for Your Forest Stewardship Plan (EM064). Useful traits to know for different soil types on a property include drainage class, depth to water table, depth to restrictive layer, and frequency of flooding or ponding. This tool can also interpret the suitability of a site for a number of useful practices like hand planting trees, trail building, road building, and <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>site productivity<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>, as well as give a landowner a sense of the risk of erosion and other detrimental impacts to their soils.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large wsu-spacing-before--large wsu-spacing-after--large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"494\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_16-new-1024x494.png\" alt=\"Screenshot of the Natural Resource Conservation Service\u2019s Web Soil Survey.\" class=\"wp-image-2881\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_16-new-1024x494.png 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_16-new-300x145.png 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_16-new-768x371.png 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_16-new-1536x741.png 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_16-new.png 1883w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 16. Screenshot of the NRCS Web Soil Survey.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Forests develop nutrient cycling systems that are incredibly unique and efficient. As nutrients are obtained from the soil and incorporated into the biomass of trees, shrubs, and forbs, they are eventually returned to the site in the form of leaf litter and downed dead wood. This contributes to the organic matter in the upper levels of the soil (also called the humus layer). Humus is critical to plant growth. The deep roots of trees ensure that there are limited losses from the system over time.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\">Since most backyard forest owners will not be operating heavy equipment or doing any commercial harvesting, protecting soils is a relatively easy task and relies heavily on protecting and encouraging the buildup of organic matter. Below are some tips for maintaining or restoring soil health in forests:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignright size-large is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_17_ab-573x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Top: Uncompacted soil shows measuring tape down to a line marked \u201c20.\u201d\nBottom: Compacted soil shows tighter pore spacing, less root growth, and the line marked \u201c20\u201d appears to be lower than with the uncompacted soil.\" class=\"wp-image-2883\" width=\"430\" height=\"768\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_17_ab-573x1024.jpg 573w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_17_ab-168x300.jpg 168w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_17_ab.jpg 600w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 430px) 100vw, 430px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 17. Uncompacted soil is shown on top. Compacted soil, shown on the bottom, has less structure and pore space, limiting plant growth. Photos: Max Ross, NRCS.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Place paths and roads on well-drained soils, where possible. Significant traffic on saturated soils leads to the deterioration of soil structure, erosion, and <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#c\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#c\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>compaction<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> (Figure 17). Additionally, avoid running paths too close to streams or other water bodies.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Plan trails and roads in a way that reaches all parts of the property efficiently to limit the amount of exposed soil throughout a forest.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ensure steep slopes are properly vegetated, preferably with deep-rooted trees or shrubs, to limit erosion.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Although forest soils are often rich and can make good additions to a garden, do not \u201charvest\u201d soils from a forest.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Leave downed wood on the ground to contribute to organic matter in the soil (but limit inputs of large amounts of freshly downed wood\u2014see Bark Beetles section and Chapter 24: Fire-Resistant Landscaping for the Home and Community).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Reduce the risks of compaction by limiting the operation of heavy machinery when soils are wet or saturated. This is especially true for poorly draining soils. Crown dieback is a common symptom of compacted soils. When soils become compacted, it is very difficult to remedy, so prevention is critical.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>As the climate continues to change and the region experiences hotter, drier summers, it will become increasingly important to understand the moisture-holding properties of soils. The severity of drought damage is often correlated to soil type and the trees that are growing there. In some instances, trees are growing on the margin of their suitable or preferred conditions so additional stressors lead to significant damage or mortality. This is why matching the proper tree species to suitable soil types is critical.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading  wsu-heading--style-marked\" id=\"ch13-silviculture\">Silviculture<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#s\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>Silviculture<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> literally means \u201cthe cultivation of trees.\u201d This is a field of study and set of management practices that professional foresters use to influence the growth and development of forests toward specific objectives (such as timber, wildlife habitat, recreation, etc.) without compromising the ecological integrity of a forest. For backyard forests, landowners will not likely be implementing intensive silvicultural practices very often, but there a few key concepts, tools, and practices that they should be aware of.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_18.jpg\" alt=\"A caged sapling surrounded by green grass.\" class=\"wp-image-2885\" width=\"300\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_18.jpg 400w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_18-200x300.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 18. Afforestation is the creation of a forest in an area where one did not exist previously, such as a yard or pasture. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Tree Planting<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\">Owners of small patches of forest are unlikely to undertake large reforestation projects, but almost all forest owners find themselves in the position of planting trees at some point. There are three general forms of tree planting, each with a different purpose:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Reforestation<\/strong>: This takes place after a large-scale disturbance removes trees from the site (e.g., logging, windstorms, wildfire) and is the process of reestablishing tree cover. Reforestation can also occur on a smaller scale to fill gaps in a forest canopy.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Afforestation<\/strong>: This term refers to the creation of a forest where one had not existed in recent history, such as an abandoned pasture or developed area (Figure 18).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Underplanting<\/strong>: This entails planting shade-tolerant trees beneath an existing forest canopy to establish the next cohort of trees and is usually done when the overstory is comprised of short-lived trees and there is limited natural seedling establishment. Underplanting native shrubs is also a common practice that provides wildlife habitat.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Regardless of landowner motivations or circumstances, some basic tips can ensure trees and shrubs are planted successfully. Perhaps most important is to match the species to the site. Know the site\u2019s soils, hydrology, and microclimate, and use those details to select a species that will not only survive but thrive in those conditions. Landowners should also consider planting a mix of species when possible. Planting only one species is a little like putting all the eggs in one basket. Diverse forests are more resilient to environmental stressors.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The best time to plant a tree varies by location. In western Washington, December through March is the best time to get trees in the ground. The ground is often frozen in eastern Washington during this period, so trees are typically planted either in the early spring or late fall. Regardless, the key is planting trees at a time that gives them a period of plentiful moisture for growth before the arrival of the dry season.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>After a tree is planted, it is important to ensure success by protecting it from animal damage and competitive vegetation. See the Animal Damage section for more information. Trees can be given a competitive advantage during establishment by removing vegetation within a two- or three-foot radius of the base and ensuring nothing will overtop it (this is less important when underplanting). Eventually trees reach a point where they are <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#f\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#f\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>free-to-grow<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>, which is when they grow to a height where the leader (top) is above reach of browse and competitive vegetation.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Thinning for Forest Health<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>As trees in a forest stand grow in size, competition for space and resources increases. Since there is limited light, water, and nutrients available on any site, some trees will die. This is most common during the stem exclusion phase of forest stand development mentioned previously. Timely management during this stage ensures trees continue to grow vigorously and do not become overstocked. Thinning is the primary tool by which forest owners can manage the density of their forests and is defined as the partial removal of trees with the intention to reallocate resources to those left behind.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A key component of proper thinning is that the best trees are left standing. When deciding which trees to remove, foresters choose those that exhibit poor growth and form in order to enhance the quality of the stand and the forest\u2019s genetics. Trees with broken or split tops, poor live crown ratios, or small diameters are all good candidates, even if the thinning is intended to produce timber. However, trees with broken tops can serve as wildlife habitat, so keeping some may be beneficial. Thinning also provides an opportunity to influence the species composition of a forest. Forest owners have a chance to favor species they want, ideally resulting in a diversified forest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Removing high-quality trees first and leaving the rest behind is called <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#h\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#h\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>high-grading<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a> and has resulted in degraded forest conditions throughout Washington. This is a bad practice, because it not only leaves behind poorly functioning trees that cannot take advantage of the new resources but also diminishes the long-term quality of the genetic resources on the site.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Any thinning project can be lumped into one of two categories: pre-commercial and commercial. Just as it sounds, a pre-commercial thinning (PCT) refers to removing trees that are not large enough in diameter to have value for a commercial sale (Figure 19). Instead, trees can be left on the forest floor to decay or processed by mulching or burning. In eastern Washington, this process is more important.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full wsu-spacing-before--large wsu-spacing-after--large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1000\" height=\"521\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_19.jpg\" alt=\"A younger stand of mixed evergreen and deciduous trees.\" class=\"wp-image-2888\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_19.jpg 1000w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_19-300x156.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_19-768x400.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1000px) 100vw, 1000px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 19. Conducting a pre-commercial thin (PCT) on a young stand will maintain vigorous tree growth and create healthy understory growth. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>PCT is vital in plantation forests and provides the best opportunity to prevent overstocking. It is important to conduct PCT before or soon after a stand begins to exhibit the symptoms of overstocking (see the Overstocking section). Conversely, thinning too early (before canopy closure) can cause trees to deprioritize height growth and become \u201cbushy.\u201d Conducting a PCT at the right time is often referred to as hitting a \u201cthinning window\u201d and is an important part of maintaining forest health. When to thin within that window can be determined by landowner management objectives, such as thinning early to encourage growth of shrubs and ground flora for wildlife habitat or thinning late to prioritize vertical growth.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Thinning can benefit forest plantations throughout their life cycle, but it tends to be most critical to forest health when they are young. Older, more developed plantations are generally more able to \u201cself-thin,\u201d but mechanical thinning can still benefit growth and tree vigor. Thinning operations in older plantations usually yield commercially valuable timber but are carried out quite differently than PCT. This will be discussed in more detail in the Harvesting section.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>If a landowner is considering pre-commercial thinning to improve forest health, they should reach out to their regional Extension forester for resources on how to do it properly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Pruning<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Some forest owners become interested in pruning because they believe it can create good quality timber. While this is true, the cost of labor is greater than the added value of the timber at harvest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>That does not mean it is a bad idea for forest owners to prune their trees. Many do it as an aesthetic choice to have a clear line of sight through their forest. Pruning can also be a way of reducing the chance for a surface wildfire to move up into the crown of a forest. These are called ladder fuels. Removing them can be particularly effective near roads and other high-traffic areas where ignitions are more common.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_20.jpg\" alt=\"Someone in an orange vest saws at a lower limb of a younger ponderosa pine tree. Someone else in the background practices using a pole saw on a different tree.\" class=\"wp-image-2891\" width=\"300\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_20.jpg 400w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_20-200x300.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 20. Pruning is sometimes done to improve the aesthetic value of a forest. Photo: WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Pruning is best done while the tree is dormant (between October and March) but can also be done in the late summer and fall with minimal damage to the tree (Figure 20). When removing a branch, it is important not to cut flush with the trunk or cut too far out, leaving too much of a branch. A proper cut takes place at the top of the branch collar, which is where the branch flares out as it joins the trunk. When done well, a pruning wound will easily heal within a growing season or two. Never take more than a third of the living crown in a given season or leave less than a 40% live crown ratio (or 50% for some <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#h\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/glossary\/#h\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"><strong>hardwoods<\/strong> (opens in new window)<\/a>, like red alder). Dropping the branches on the ground will add to organic matter in the soil but can also add fine fuels to the forest floor, increasing wildfire risk. In western Washington, these will decay rapidly, and the period of increased risk is minimal. In the drier environment of eastern Washington these fuels can last longer, so mulching or burning might be reasonable to consider. If leaving the branches on the ground in eastern Washington, pruning between October and December is critical to avoid bark beetle establishment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Harvesting<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\">Most backyard forest owners have little or no interest in producing timber and will probably not conduct a commercial harvest in their lifetime. However, harvesting is not always motivated by financial return. Below are a few types of commercial forest harvesting and their purposes:<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_21.jpg\" alt=\"Overhead shot looking down into coniferous forest.\" class=\"wp-image-2892\" width=\"450\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_21.jpg 600w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_21-300x200.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 21. Variable density thinning creates heterogenous structure in a forest. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Clearcutting<\/strong>: This is a common form of harvest throughout Washington that removes nearly all the trees in a given area. It is a common part of industrial timber production and an efficient approach to both harvesting and regeneration.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Thinning from below<\/strong>: This is a broad term for the partial removal of commercially valuable trees from a forest. Similar to pre-commercial thinning, it requires removing trees of lower quality (often below the greater canopy due to poor growth) in order to hit a target density and results in a matrix of evenly, well-spaced trees that will continue to grow and yield significant timber further down the line.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Thinning from above<\/strong>: This form of thinning focuses on taking trees from the overstory to favor the understory cohort. It should only be done when the overstory is poor quality and there is a sufficient cohort of preferred species in the understory to replace it. This is a rare practice in Washington and should be used sparingly as it can often excuse high-grading.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Variable density thinning (VDT)<\/strong>: VDT is a form of thinning that removes all trees in some areas to create small gaps, evenly thin other areas, and leave some patches of dense forest (Figure 21). The resulting heterogeneity in composition in structure resembles forests prior to European settlement and is highly beneficial to wildlife.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Salvage harvest<\/strong>: This practice is usually done immediately after a disturbance such as wildfire or an insect outbreak that caused significant mortality. Harvesting the dead trees for commercial value is a way of mitigating financial losses and reestablishing a forest on the site.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<p>If the need or desire to harvest does arise, it is important to hire a consulting forester. These are professionals who can navigate state regulations and timber markets, find a quality logger, handle reforestation, and add a layer of liability protection between a forest owner and the people actually doing the harvesting. From a financial perspective, consulting foresters can more than pay for themselves. Their experience navigating timber markets often yields a higher value to the landowner. To find a consulting forester that works in your region, visit the <a href=\"http:\/\/forestry.wsu.edu\/consultingdirectory\/\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"http:\/\/forestry.wsu.edu\/consultingdirectory\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Extension Forestry (opens in new window)<\/a> website.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading wsu-spacing-after--small\">Hazard Trees<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Cutting hazard trees is a pretty common practice in small backyard forests. Hazard trees pose a risk of injuring people or damaging structures if or when they fall. The removal of a hazard tree can be expensive and is generally unlikely to result in any financial return. Determining whether a tree presents a hazard is the job of an arborist certified by the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.treesaregood.org\/findanarborist\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.treesaregood.org\/findanarborist\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">International Society of Arboriculture (opens in new window)<\/a> (ISA). If harvest is required, consider having an arborist remove only the top of the tree, reducing it to a height that would no longer pose a threat. The resulting snag will provide great wildlife habitat.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading  wsu-heading--style-marked\" id=\"ch13-wetland-management\">Riparian and Wetland Management<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\">The most important resource to sustain life on earth is water. Water can be found throughout all living organisms and across the landscape. Where water coalesces, two types of habitats form:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol>\n<li>Riparian areas consist of seasonal creeks, streams, and rivers. These areas are often defined as the ecosystem (both flora and fauna) surrounding a channelized flow of water; a well-oxygenated aquatic ecosystem.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Wetlands are areas where water pools with minimal flow and channelization. These are often flat lowland areas, or transition zones to upland habitats, containing hydric soils with limited oxygen availability. These can be permanently flooded areas such as ponds and lakes or they can be seasonal wetlands.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_22.jpg\" alt=\"Trees border a forest stream.\" class=\"wp-image-2894\" width=\"300\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_22.jpg 400w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_22-200x300.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 22. Healthy streams have proper forest canopy cover to moderate water temperature and habitat features like downed logs. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Riparian and wetland habitats are critical ecosystem features for wildlife and vegetation (Figure 22). These areas also play an important role in maintaining water quality for human consumption. Forests play a critical role in maintaining the integrity of riparian areas. Trees moderate extreme precipitation and water flow events. Root development and tree crowns help disperse water across the ground, limiting rapid runoff and sedimentation. This is extremely important alongside stream banks, as water incision and erosion from the stream is mitigated by tree roots.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Terrestrial wildlife and fish species rely heavily on riparian and wetland areas. Many aquatic species are dependent on specific ranges of water temperature for survival. Most amphibian wetland species are ectothermic, meaning they cannot control their body temperature. Fish require specific temperature ranges to maintain optimal oxygen levels for respiration. Trees and shrubs play an important role in maintaining a stable microclimate in these areas by shading the water during the day. One species that has evolved within riparian forest habitats is the salmonid family. With very specific life cycles and wide ranges, these species are often subject to a wide variety of management decisions. These species must also return to the original stream in which they hatched. Salmon eggs are extremely susceptible to environmental conditions. Loss of vegetation can cause erosion which leads to sedimentation in streams, covering and choking eggs. Stream incision can increase the water\u2019s velocity, and the faster water can then wash away salmonid eggs. Streams are often lacking large woody material which produce important habitat features. Large, downed trees moderate streamflow and create zones for resting, feeding, and avoiding predators.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Unless a forest owner has a major stream running through their property, riparian and wetland management will often be minimal, but there are still some considerations to keep in mind. When creating trails or roads, minimize how much the path crosses over the water feature, and try and maintain a buffer away from the edge. Properly built and maintained trails can reduce or eliminate runoff into waterways. Property owners should install culverts and bridges to mitigate compaction and erosion around streams or other wetland sites. Just like in home gardens, managing for weeds is important, as these can be detrimental to native wildlife and plants. Oftentimes, shading invasive weeds with native shrubs and trees will help to eliminate or reduce weed growth and will also help to stabilize banks. Reforest and replant shorelines and banks with water-tolerant species, such as western redcedar, western hemlock, bigleaf maple, and red alder. These are great species for western Washington. Good eastern Washington species include several broadleaf species, such as quaking aspen, black cottonwood, willow, and dogwood. Try and maintain existing native grasses, sedges, and rushes. Microsites in the more montane regions of northeastern Washington that have enough shade and water may support western hemlock and western redcedar.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading  wsu-heading--style-marked\" id=\"ch13-aesthetics-recreation\">Aesthetics and Recreation<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Aesthetics and visual appeal are critical features for forest landowners. Growing research indicates that experiencing nature improves physical and mental well-being. Landowners often make \u201cvisual access\u201d their first priority, that is, the ability to see through a forest. Creating visual access can be done by thinning and pruning. Sightlines improve, and people can then experience more of the landscape. Additionally, by decreasing the density of the forest, people allow more sunlight through the canopy. This provides an alternative benefit: more sunlight and water resources for shrubs and forbs in the understory creates more diversity and color as well as increases resources for wildlife. This may look different for the wet forests of western Washington compared to the dry forests in eastern Washington. Water availability is significantly higher through much of the year west of the Cascade mountains. This makes forests denser, providing a cool, shady habitat. The lack of water in eastern Washington mixed with a historically frequent fire pattern created a more open forest where trees and understory plants faced less competition for water.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_23.jpg\" alt=\"Two trees appear to have bridged or fused together at trunk level.\" class=\"wp-image-2895\" width=\"300\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_23.jpg 400w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_23-200x300.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 23. Interesting trees or unique features are great to highlight on a foot trail in a backyard forest. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Big or unique trees are another feature to manage (Figure 23). John Muir commonly referred to the massive redwoods of California as \u201cnatural wonders.\u201d Small forest landowners see the same thing in their backyard when they see large old trees standing as giants. While often people manage the scenic beauty of the forests, it is also important to remember ecological integrity. For example, sometimes a clean and tidy forest may look aesthetically pleasing, but the woody material and shrubs that may have been removed were important sources of cover and provided nutritional input into the soil.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Apart from maintaining the scenic beauty of forests, it is also important to be able to access forests and create connections with them. One way to build experiences and create a cultural resource is to create \u201cspecial spots\u201d or landmarks throughout. This could include building benches for viewing and resting, identifying leave-trees that remain after a harvest where a plaque could be placed, or a grove that is used for family camping and bonfires.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>It is important that forest owners be able to access their landmark features throughout the property. Small, noninvasive trails are a great way to create access. When building trails, consider potential forest highlights and how much energy is required to access them. Pay attention to grade and elevation. Build trails along hillsides and slopes using switchbacks instead of going straight upwards. Place trails near, but not directly adjacent to, waterways, and consider using bridges or boardwalks in wet areas. Bridges and boardwalks protect the biota that call these critical areas home. Walking on a boardwalk is also more pleasant than walking through mud. Creating loops is an excellent way to access remote areas without extending the length of the trail.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading  wsu-heading--style-marked\" id=\"ch13-forest-cultural-resources\">Forest Cultural Resources<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Historical features are an important cultural aspect that forest landowners often need to be mindful of. While age is an important feature of a historic artifact, a societal view of \u201cimportance\u201d can be a distinction for something to become a historic artifact. It is critical that we preserve and protect these features for future generations and to show respect for those who lived. The Department of Archaeology and Historic Preservation is the primary agency that works to monitor and preserve historic artifacts in Washington State.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Native American people have been living across the Pacific Northwest for potentially 12,000 years. Indigenous groups relied on natural resources for food, shelter, and clothing, as well as spiritual and cultural needs. Each tribe in Washington applied unique forms of forest management to meet these needs, and remnants of these activities can still be found today. In forested areas, culturally modified trees (CMTs) are among the most common features found. Often, CMTs were used for travel directions, similar to trail markers, indicating where people should go. Notched and topped trees would mark pathways or potentially important areas. Thin strands of western redcedar bark were often removed for textiles and basketry. The interior heartwood, which contains chemicals that help resist against rot, was often used as the hull of a canoe. Many tribes would use lodgepole pine, which grows extremely tall and skinny, for structural support of their dwellings.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_24.jpg\" alt=\"Springboard notch carved into the trunk of an old stump.\" class=\"wp-image-2896\" width=\"450\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_24.jpg 600w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_24-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_24-150x150.jpg 150w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 450px) 100vw, 450px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 24. Springboard notches are a common historical marker of early harvesting in the region. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Many Euro-American cultural resources are also present in Washington forests. While structures are more commonly found throughout the eastern portion of the United States, signs of homesteading can still be found throughout Washington State. Old stone walls, original homestead cabins, and pathways are examples of cultural resources that could be present on a property. Common historic remnants found throughout Washington include evidence of old-growth logging. You may find stumps with a flat top several feet high where the crosscut saw was used or notches in the side where springboards were placed (Figure 24).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wsu-spacing-after--xsmall\">There are four specific categories of historic artifacts that are protected in Washington State:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Native American burials and human remains<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Glyptic (carved) images<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Rock shelters and structures<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cairns<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>If any of these are present in a forest, contact the Washington Department of Natural Resources or the Washington Department of Archaeology and Historic Preservation, and an archaeologist will survey the property.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cultural resources do not need to be something that have existed for hundreds of years on a property. Part of owning land is the joy of being connected to that land and experiencing nature. Many families create their own culturally important features, which helps them develop a connection that they can share and pass down. Small forest landowners consistently rank aesthetics and recreation among the highest priorities they have for owning land.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading  wsu-heading--style-marked\" id=\"ch13-forest-products\">Non-timber Forest Products<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Forests produce much more than just timber. In fact, the term \u201cecosystem services\u201d was developed to recognize the many goods and services forests and other ecosystems provide, including carbon sequestration, water and air quality enhancement, and cultural resources, among many others. The term non-timber forest products (NTFP), also called \u201cspecial forest products,\u201d refers to goods or services that can be obtained in a forest outside of a commercial timber sale. NTFPs can be harvested for personal use or sold. There are six categories of NTFPs:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Edibles<\/strong>: There are many foods available in Washington forests. Berries and mushrooms are commonly foraged throughout the state, but there are also a wide variety edible roots, leaves, and flowers.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Medicinals<\/strong>: Many things that grow in the forest have medicinal value. Although very few medicinal industries exist that are based on forest-derived products in Washington, many plants are used in home remedies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Aromatics<\/strong>: Plenty of plants are prized for their fragrance, and many of these plants can be distilled as essential oil or turned into incense.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>D\u00e9cor<\/strong>: Plants like sword fern and salal can be used in floral arrangements. Boughs from cedar, pine, or fir are frequently used as accent greenery.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Fiber<\/strong>: Wood fiber can be utilized as a non-timber forest product. Common products include firewood, baskets, and specialty wood products like burls.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong>Ecotourism<\/strong>: Privately owned forests are often utilized for workshops, weddings, overnight stays, forest bathing, and other experiences. This can be a very lucrative practice.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"alignright size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_25.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up of maple tree tap.\" class=\"wp-image-2898\" width=\"300\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_25.jpg 400w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/62\/2025\/10\/Fig_25-200x300.jpg 200w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Figure 25. A tap in a bigleaf maple tree collecting sap. Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n\n\n<p>Native American cultures have a long, rich history of utilizing NTFPs. Much of that knowledge has shaped current practices. In the present day, wild foraged mushrooms and greenery are major industries in Washington. While the vast majority of small forest owners utilize NTFPs solely for personal use, some sell these products or services for supplemental income. Families and friends can enrich themselves by foraging and harvesting NTFPs, whether for personal use or to sell.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Agroforestry<\/em><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Agroforestry is a set of practices that intentionally integrates forestry and agricultural concepts into a single, cohesive system. These practices generally place equal emphasis on producing timber and non-timber forest products.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Forest farming is the practice of producing high-value crops under an existing forest canopy. Growing shiitake and other specialty mushrooms on small-diameter hardwood logs or tapping bigleaf maple to produce maple syrup are both good examples of forest farming (Figure 25).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This practice has considerable room for creativity, and many shade-tolerant forbs and shrubs could be purposefully cultivated beneath a forest canopy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Silvopasture is another agroforestry system that may be relevant to backyard forest owners who also raise livestock on a small scale. This practice requires the integration and management of three components: a low-density tree canopy, animals, and forage or browse. The cover provided by the trees helps regulate temperatures in livestock, improving their health and productivity. In eastern Washington, this is often referred to as forest grazing, because the forage component is generally not intensively managed. In western Washington, integrating cattle and trees requires a little more caution since saturated soils are more easily compacted. However, with proper site selection and the utilization of rotational grazing practices, silvopasture can provide significant benefits to livestock, the environment, and landowners on both sides of the state.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Windbreaks utilize trees and tall shrubs to redirect or reduce airflow. Landowners may find these useful for a number of purposes. In the 1930s, windbreaks became very popular in the Midwest to reduce soil erosion. In eastern Washington, they are often used to stop snowdrifts. They can also reduce pesticide drift, bad smells, and energy costs in homes. Windbreaks can use native tree species and shrubs or incorporate non-native species that can produce fruits, nuts, or other crops. When planning a windbreak, consider wildfire risk and avoid the creation of excess fuels within 100 feet of the home.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading  wsu-heading--style-marked\" id=\"ch13-summary\">Summary<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Backyard forests may be small, but they contain the same intricate ecologies of a larger forest and must be managed with this in mind. Forest landowners are unlikely to consider harvesting timber for financial gain but instead are usually more interested in managing their forests to provide critical ecosystem services, like wildlife habitat and water quality enhancement. Often, backyard forests are fragmented and in urban or peri-urban areas where stressors affecting trees are more intense and numerous, so managing for forest health becomes vital. This is not always an easy task, but landowners are encouraged to view their forest as part of a broader ecosystem, where even snags and downed trees occupy an important niche. This can alleviate some of the pressure backyard forest owners feel to keep every tree alive and healthy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\" \/>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading  wsu-heading--style-marked\" id=\"ch13-further-reading\">Further Reading<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>This section is a short summary on a wide breadth of forest management topics. There are many topics that were only lightly touched on or were left out entirely that may be relevant to backyard forest owners. The WSU Extension Forestry team has assembled an extensive library of forestry publications arranged by topic for further reading. To access this library, go to the <a href=\"http:\/\/forestry.wsu.edu\/resources\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"forestry.wsu.edu\/resources\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">WSU Extension Forestry Resources (opens in new window)<\/a> website. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Introduction section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Grotta, A.T., and J. Creighton. 2011. <a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/backyard-forest-stewardship-in-eastern-washington\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Backyard Forest Stewardship in Eastern Washington (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Washington State University Extension Publication<\/em> EM028E. Washington State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Grotta, A.T., and J. Creighton. 2011. <a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/backyard-forest-stewardship-in-western-washington\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Backyard Forest Stewardship in Western Washington (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Washington State University Extension Publication<\/em> EM026E. Washington State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Forest Health section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Hanley, D.P., and D.M. Baumgartner. 2003. <a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/forest-ecology-in-washington\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Forest Ecology in Washington (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Washington State University Extension Publication<\/em> EB1943. Washington State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Powell, D.C. 2012. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/pnw\/pubs\/pnw_gtr363.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/pnw\/pubs\/pnw_gtr363.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">A Stage Is A Stage Is A Stage&#8230;Or Is It? Successional Stages, Structural Stages, Seral Stages (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Root Diseases section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Forest Health Protection. 2011. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/foresthealth\/docs\/fidls\/FIDL-172-AnnosusRootDisease.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/foresthealth\/docs\/fidls\/FIDL-172-AnnosusRootDisease.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Annosus Root Disease (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hagle, S.K. 2010. <a href=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/Root-Disease-Management-Guide.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/Root-Disease-Management-Guide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Management Guide for Laminated Root Rot (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hagle, S.K. 2010. <a href=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/Root-Disease-Management-Guide.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/Root-Disease-Management-Guide.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Management Guide for Armillaria Root Disease (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Heart and Butt Rots section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Forest Health Protection. 2011. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/foresthealth\/docs\/fidls\/FIDL-177-SchweinitziiRootConifers.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/foresthealth\/docs\/fidls\/FIDL-177-SchweinitziiRootConifers.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Schweinitzii Root and Butt Rot (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Oester, P.T., D.C. Shaw, and G.M. Filip. 2019. <a href=\"https:\/\/catalog.extension.oregonstate.edu\/em8990\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Managing Insects and Diseases of Oregon Conifers (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Oregon State University Extension Service<\/em> EM 8990. Oregon State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Bark Beetles section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Gibson, K.E. 2010. <a href=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/MtnPineBeetle-PDF-.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/MtnPineBeetle-PDF-.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Management Guide for Mountain Pine Beetle (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kegley, S. 2011. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/sites\/nfs\/files\/legacy-media\/r02\/2%20pager%20-%20Douglas-fir%20beetle.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/sites\/nfs\/files\/legacy-media\/r02\/2%20pager%20-%20Douglas-fir%20beetle.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Douglas-fir Beetle Management (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Livingston, L. 2010. <a href=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/Pine-Engraver-Management-Guide-.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/Pine-Engraver-Management-Guide-.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Management Guide for Pine Engravers (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Randall, C.B. 2010. <a href=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/WesternPineBeetle-Management-Guide-.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/WesternPineBeetle-Management-Guide-.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Management Guide for Western Pine Beetle (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Defoliating Insects, Foliar Diseases, and Mistletoes section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Hoffman, J.T. 2010. <a href=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/Mistletoe-Management-Guide-PDF.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/Mistletoe-Management-Guide-PDF.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Management Guide for Dwarf Mistletoe (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mulvey, R.L., D.C. Shaw, G.M. Filip, and G.A. Chastagner. 2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/foresthealth\/docs\/fidls\/FIDL-181-SwissNeedleCast.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/foresthealth\/docs\/fidls\/FIDL-181-SwissNeedleCast.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Swiss Needle Cast, Forest Insect &amp; Disease Leaflet (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Munson, S. 2010. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/sites\/nfs\/files\/legacy-media\/r06\/2024-Field%20Guide%20to%20the%20Common%20Diseases%20and%20Insect%20Pests%20of%20OR%20and%20WA.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/sites\/nfs\/files\/legacy-media\/r06\/2024-Field%20Guide%20to%20the%20Common%20Diseases%20and%20Insect%20Pests%20of%20OR%20and%20WA.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Management Guide for Cooley Spruce Gall Aphid (Adelgid) (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pederson, L., N. Sturdevant, and D. Blackford. 2011. <a href=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/WesternSpruceBudworm-Managemet-Guide-.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/WesternSpruceBudworm-Managemet-Guide-.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Western Spruce Budworm Management (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Randall, C. 2010. <a href=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/DouglasFirTussockMoth-PDF.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/dnrc.mt.gov\/_docs\/forestry\/Forestry_Assistance\/Forest_Pests\/DouglasFirTussockMoth-PDF.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Management Guide for Douglas-fir Tussock Moth (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Invasive Insects and Diseases section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Purdue University Extension. 2018. <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.entm.purdue.edu\/eab\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Emerald Ash Borer Management (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Schwandt, J., H. Kearns, and J. Byler. 2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/rm\/pubs_other\/rmrs_2010_geils_b001.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/rm\/pubs_other\/rmrs_2010_geils_b001.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">White Pine Blister Rust General Ecology and Management (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Other Forest Health Diseases section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Allen, E.A., D.J. Morrison, and G. Wallis. 1996. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cclmportal.ca\/resource\/common-tree-diseases-british-columbia\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.cclmportal.ca\/resource\/common-tree-diseases-british-columbia\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Common Tree Diseases of British Columbia (opens in new window)<\/a>. Pacific Forestry Centre.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Goheen, E.M., and E.A. Willhite. 2006. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/sites\/nfs\/files\/legacy-media\/r06\/2024-Field%20Guide%20to%20the%20Common%20Diseases%20and%20Insect%20Pests%20of%20OR%20and%20WA.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/sites\/nfs\/files\/legacy-media\/r06\/2024-Field%20Guide%20to%20the%20Common%20Diseases%20and%20Insect%20Pests%20of%20OR%20and%20WA.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Field Guide to the Common Diseases and Insect Pests of Oregon and Washington Conifers (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Animal Damage section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Burleigh, J., T. Ebata, K.J. White, D. Rusch, and H. Kope, eds. 2014. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.for.gov.bc.ca\/hfd\/pubs\/docs\/lmh\/lmh29.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Field Guide to Forest Damage in British Columbia (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Loucks, D.M., H.C. Black, M.L. Roush, and S.R. Radosevich. 1990. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/pnw\/pubs\/pnw_gtr262.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/pnw\/pubs\/pnw_gtr262.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Assessment and Management of Animal Damage in Pacific Northwest Forests: An Annotated Bibliography (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Nolte, D.L., K.K. Wagner, and A. Trent. 2003. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/t-d\/pubs\/pdfpubs\/pdf03242832\/pdf03242832dpi72.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/t-d\/pubs\/pdfpubs\/pdf03242832\/pdf03242832dpi72.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Timber Damage by Black Bears (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. 2022. <a href=\"https:\/\/wdfw.wa.gov\/species-habitats\/living\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Living with Wildlife (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zobrist, K. 2014. <a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/recognizing-sapsucker-damage-on-your-trees\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Recognizing Sapsucker Damage on Your Trees (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Washington State University Extension Publication<\/em> FS057E. Washington State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Environmental Stressors section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Environmental Protection Agency. 2016. <a href=\"https:\/\/19january2017snapshot.epa.gov\/climate-impacts\/climate-impacts-northwest_.html\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/19january2017snapshot.epa.gov\/climate-impacts\/climate-impacts-northwest_.html\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Climate Impacts in the Northwest (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Fitzgerald, S., and M. Bennett. 2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nwfirescience.org\/sites\/default\/files\/publications\/A%20Land%20Managers%20Guide%20for%20Creating%20Fire-resistant%20Forests%20.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">A Land Manager\u2019s Guide for Creating Fire-Resistant Forests (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Oregon State University Extension Service<\/em> EM 9087. Oregon State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sigafoo, R.S. 1964. <a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.usgs.gov\/pp\/0485a\/report.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Botanical Evidence of Floods and Flood-Plain Deposition (link to PDF document)<\/a>. <em>Geological Survey<\/em> 485-A.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>USDA Forest Service. 2016. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/pnw\/sciencef\/scifi184.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/pnw\/sciencef\/scifi184.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Predicting the Unpredictable: Potential Climate Change Impacts on Vegetation in the Pacific Northwest (link to PDF document)<\/a>. <em>Pacific Northwest Research Station<\/em> 184.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>USDA Forest Service. 2017. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/r6-droughtfactsheet.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Potential Drought Impacts in the Pacific Northwest (link to PDF document)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>U.S. Fish and Wildlife. 2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fws.gov\/story\/new-challenges\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fws.gov\/story\/new-challenges\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Climate Change in the Pacific Region (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Washington Department of Natural Resources and WSU Extension. n.d. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.dnr.wa.gov\/publications\/fp_storm_sflo_info.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Storm Damage to Forests: Information for Landowners (link to PDF document)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Withrow-Robinson, B., and D. Maguire. 2018. <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/sites\/extd8\/files\/documents\/em9206.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/sites\/extd8\/files\/documents\/em9206.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Competition and Density in Woodland Stands (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Oregon State University Extension Service<\/em> EM 9206. Oregon State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Wildlife and Habitat Diversity section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Bevis, K., B. Garcia, S. Barnes, and E. Pool. 2019. <a href=\"https:\/\/woodlandfishandwildlife.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/07\/BatsAndSmallWoodland.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Bats and Small Woodlands (link to PDF document)<\/a>. Woodland Fish and Wildlife.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Buhl, C. 2020. <a href=\"https:\/\/woodlandfishandwildlife.com\/publications\/insect\/forest-bee-pollinators\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Forest Bee Pollinators (opens in new window)<\/a>. Woodland Fish and Wildlife.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Coe, F.C. 2014. <a href=\"https:\/\/woodlandfishandwildlife.com\/publications\/birds\/cavity-nesting-birds-and-small-woodlands\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Cavity-Nesting Birds and Small Woodlands (opens in new window<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/woodlandfishandwildlife.com\/publications\/birds\/cavity-nesting-birds-and-small-woodlands\/\">)<\/a>. Woodland Fish and Wildlife.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Coe, F.C. 2014. <a href=\"https:\/\/woodlandfishandwildlife.com\/publications\/managing-for-deer-and-elk-on-small-woodlands\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Managing for Deer and Elk on Small Woodlands (opens in new window)<\/a>. Woodland Fish and Wildlife.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Coe, F.C., N. Strong, and K. Bevis. 2015. <a href=\"https:\/\/woodlandfishandwildlife.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/Family-Forests-and-Wildlife_What-you-Need-to-Know_reduced.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Family Forests and Wildlife: What You Need to Know (link to PDF document)<\/a>. Woodland Fish and Wildlife.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pederson, R.J., and R. Shay. 1993. <a href=\"https:\/\/knowyourforest.org\/media\/2529\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/knowyourforest.org\/media\/2529\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Hawk, Eagle, and Osprey Management on Small Woodlands (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Strong, N., K. Bevis, and G. Bracher. 2016. <a href=\"https:\/\/woodlandfishandwildlife.com\/publications\/eastside-dry-habitats\/wildlife-friendly-fuels-reduction-in-dry-forests-of-the-pacific-northwest\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Wildlife-Friendly Fuels Reduction in Dry Forests of the Pacific Northwest (opens in new window)<\/a>. Woodland Fish and Wildlife.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Soils section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Olgerson, O.T., and R.E. Miller. 2008. <a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/keeping-your-forest-soils-healthy-and-productive\/\">Keeping Your Forest Soils Healthy and Productive (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Washington State University Extension Publication<\/em> EB2019. Washington State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Schnepf, C., R.T. Graham, S. Kegley, and T.B. Jain. 2009. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.extension.uidaho.edu\/publishing\/pdf\/PNW\/PNW0609.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Managing Organic Debris for Forest Health (link to PDF document)<\/a>. Pacific Northwest Extension Publication PNW 609. University of Idaho.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Zobrist, K. 2013. <a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/forest-soil-data-for-your-forest-stewardship-plan-2\/\">Forest Soil Data for Your Forest Stewardship Plan (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Washington State University Extension Publication<\/em> EM064. Washington State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Silviculture section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Emmingham, W.H., and N.E. Elwood. 1983. <a href=\"https:\/\/ir.library.oregonstate.edu\/concern\/administrative_report_or_publications\/9k41zd85n?locale=it&amp;\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/ir.library.oregonstate.edu\/concern\/administrative_report_or_publications\/9k41zd85n?locale=it&amp;\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Thinning: An Important Timber Management Tool (opens in new window)<\/a>. Pacific Northwest Extension Publication PNW 184. Oregon State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Fitzgerald, S.A. 2008. <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/catalog\/pub\/ec-1498-successful-reforestation-overview\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/catalog\/pub\/ec-1498-successful-reforestation-overview\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Successful Reforestation: An Overview (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Oregon State University Extension Service Publication<\/em> EC 1498. Oregon State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hanley, D.P., and S. Reutebuch. 2005. <a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/product\/conifer-pruning-basics-for-family-forest-landowners-2\/\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/product\/conifer-pruning-basics-for-family-forest-landowners-2\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Conifer Pruning Basics for Family Forest Landowners (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Washington State University Extension Publication<\/em> EB1984. Washington State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Harrington, C. 2009. <a href=\"https:\/\/research.fs.usda.gov\/treesearch\/52153\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/research.fs.usda.gov\/treesearch\/52153\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Let\u2019s Mix it Up! The Benefits of Variable-Density Thinning (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Pacific Northwest Research Station<\/em> 112. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kocher, S., R. Harris, and G. Nakamura. 2009. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/ucanr.edu\/sites\/fire\/files\/288126.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Recovering from Wildfire: A Guide for California\u2019s Forest Landowners (link to PDF document)<\/a>. <em>University of California Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources Publication<\/em> 8386. University of California.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Parker, R., and S. Bowers. 2006. <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/sites\/extd8\/files\/documents\/ec1582.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/sites\/extd8\/files\/documents\/ec1582.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Timber Harvesting Options for Woodland Owners (link to PDF document)<\/a>. <em>Oregon State University Extension Service Publication<\/em> EC 1582. Oregon State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Washington State Department of Natural Resources. 2019. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.dnr.wa.gov\/publications\/frc_webster_plantingforestseedlings.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Planting Forest Seedlings (link to PDF document)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Riparian and Wetland Management section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Grand, L., K. Bevis, and F.C. Coe. 2017. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/woodlandfishandwildlife.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/12\/Amphibians-in-Managed-Woodlands_Tools-for-Family-Forestland-Owners_reduced.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Amphibians in Managed Woodlands: Tools for Family Forestland Owners (link to PDF document)<\/a>. Woodland Fish and Wildlife.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mannix, R., and J. Morlan. 2007. <a href=\"https:\/\/woodlandfishandwildlife.com\/publications\/eastside-dry-habitats\/wetlands-as-varied-as-our-region\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Wetlands as Varied as Our Region (opens in new window)<\/a>. <em>Washington State University Extension Publication<\/em>, MISC0179. Washington State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Oakley, A.L., J.A. Collins, L.B. Everson, D.A. Heller, J.C. Howerton, and R.E. Vincent. 1985. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/pnw\/pubs\/pnw_gtr692.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/pnw\/pubs\/pnw_gtr692.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Riparian Zones and Freshwater Wetlands (link to PDF document)<\/a>. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Oregon State University Extension Service. 2021. <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/water\/riparian-areas\/\">Riparian Area Resources (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Aesthetics and Recreation section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Brannon, T.A., D.M. Baumgartner, and D.P. Hanley. 2001. <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/www.irmforestry.com\/downloads\/pdf3.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">Roads on Small Acreage Forests in Washington (link to PDF document)<\/a>. <em>Washington State University Extension Publication<\/em>, EB1910. Washington State University.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Muth, A.B. 2016. <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.psu.edu\/forest-stewardship-planning-for-beauty-and-enjoyment\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/extension.psu.edu\/forest-stewardship-planning-for-beauty-and-enjoyment\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Forest Stewardship: Planning for Beauty and Enjoyment (opens in new window)<\/a>. PennState Extension.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Forest Cultural Resources section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/dahp.wa.gov\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Department of Archaeology and Historic Preservation (opens in new window)<\/a>. n.d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2006. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nrcs.usda.gov\/our-agency\/cultural-resources\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.nrcs.usda.gov\/our-agency\/cultural-resources\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Protecting Cultural Resources in Washington (opens in new window)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Washington State Department of Transportation. 2016. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.wsdot.wa.gov\/publications\/manuals\/fulltext\/M3120\/ECR.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Ethnobotany and Cultural Resources (link to PDF document)<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><em>Agroforestry section<\/em>:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Bishaw, B., and K. MacFarland. 2017. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/research\/publications\/gtr\/gtr_wo96\/GTR-WO-96-AppendixA-Northwest.pdf\" data-type=\"URL\" data-id=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/research\/publications\/gtr\/gtr_wo96\/GTR-WO-96-AppendixA-Northwest.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Regional Summaries: Northwest (link to PDF document)<\/a>. In Agroforestry: <em>Enhancing Resiliency in U.S. Agricultural Landscapes Under Changing Conditions<\/em>, edited by M.M. Schoeneberger, G. Bentrup, and T. Patel-Weynand. USDA Forest Service.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/nac\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">USDA National Agroforestry Center (opens in new window)<\/a>. n.d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Vance, N.C., M. Borsting, D. Pilz, and J. Freed. 2001. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/pnw\/pubs\/pnw_gtr513.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Special Forest Products: Species Information Guide for the Pacific Northwest. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-513. USDA Forest Service (link to PDF document)<\/a>.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Patrick Shults, Extension Forester, Washington State University Sean Alexander, Extension Forester, Washington State University Introduction Backyard forests (opens in new window), although small, are a critical part of the forest landscape in Washington. These properties are less than five acres in size but contribute to a rich forest mosaic across the state. Many of these [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":241,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_wsuwp_accessibility_report":null},"categories":[],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1343"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/241"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1343"}],"version-history":[{"count":90,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1343\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":4811,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1343\/revisions\/4811"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1343"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1343"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/pnw-gardeners-handbook\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1343"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}