{"id":21,"date":"2024-09-23T09:54:19","date_gmt":"2024-09-23T16:54:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/?page_id=21"},"modified":"2026-02-13T11:15:42","modified_gmt":"2026-02-13T19:15:42","slug":"forestfarming","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/","title":{"rendered":"Forest Farming"},"content":{"rendered":"<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">What is Forest Farming? <\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Forest farming is the intentional and sustainable cultivation of non-timber forest products in a managed forest (University of Missouri, 2018).&nbsp; The types of crops grown in forest farming systems vary greatly by bioregion and site conditions, but can include both shade tolerant crops grown in the understory (e.g. ramps, thimbleberry, log-grown shiitake) or the product of canopy trees (e.g. maple syrup, decorative boughs). &nbsp;In many cases, these crops can be co-managed with timber production, although some landowners may elect to forego timber production to maintain a forest canopy for crop production.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/03\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-1024x683.jpg\" alt=\"A graphic illustrating crops being cultivated in rows beneath a forest canopy.\" class=\"wp-image-214\" width=\"539\" height=\"359\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/03\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/03\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/03\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/03\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-1536x1024.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/03\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-2048x1365.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 539px) 100vw, 539px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Forest farming is a broad term for a the intentional cultivation of non-timber forest products in a forest, such as mushrooms, medicinal crops, fruit and nut producing shrubs, nursery stock and seed, and forest medicinals.  (Graphic created by G. Steffen, WSU CAHNRS Communications)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n<div class=\"wsu-callout\" >\r\n        \n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Benefits of Forest Farming:<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Diversified forest production for commercial or personal use<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Source of income between timber harvests or in areas restricted from harvest<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Add value to hardwood stands with low timber potential<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Sustainably produce products with &#8220;wild&#8221; traits<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Cultivate and protect culturally important species<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Carbon sequestration and wildlife habitat<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Incentivizes forest stewardship and conservation<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n<div class=\"wsu-callout\" >\r\n        \n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Challenges\/Barriers to Forest Farming: <\/h3>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Informal or immature markets<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Limited resources and guidance for cultivating specific forest crops<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Crops often require more time to yield<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Licensing and regulatory barriers to value-added products<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Protecting crops from pests and poaching<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Active forest management required<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Forest farming provides an opportunity for landowners to grow high-value crops while maintaining the benefits that forests provide, including water quality enhancement, wildlife habitat, and carbon sequestration. For farmers, this can present an opportunity to develop income on marginal woodlots that cannot be utilized for traditional agriculture. Depending on the intended crop, forest farming can be utilized in forests as small as a quarter of an acre. Woodlots utilized for forest farming often benefit from active management that would otherwise be lacking. This enhances long-term forest health and function, while increasing and diversifying income for the landowner.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Forest Farming and Riparian Buffers<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Forest farming is naturally compatible with riparian buffers because it requires managing and conserving forest cover to maintain production.&nbsp; The forest management associated with this practice often results in long-term benefits to forest health and function, including biodiversity, reduced presence of noxious weeds, and improved pollinator habitat. &nbsp;Most crops can be cultivated with minimal ecological footprint and readily mimic natural understory and overstory conditions. Income from forest farming crops can help offset financial losses associated with timber harvesting restrictions in riparian areas.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>Forest farming in riparian buffers does require careful consideration of  inputs and the level of disturbance required to establish and maintain a  system.&nbsp; For instance, it\u2019s best to avoid or mitigate pesticide use  near waterways whenever possible and additional legal restrictions may  apply depending on the product being used and the distance from a water  source.&nbsp; When applying pesticide, always read and follow the  instructions on the label closely. &nbsp;Fortunately, many forest farming  crops can be cultivated with minimal inputs or long-term disturbance  while maintaining tree cover. &nbsp;Because of this, it can be practiced in some form throughout all zones of a buffer, whereas other agroforestry practices like silvopasture and alley cropping are best restricted to the outer zone due to their reduced tree cover.  <\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"Shiitake mushrooms being grown on logs beneath a forest with a river in the background.\" class=\"wp-image-12\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-2048x1536.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Forest cultivated shiitake systems are low-input and require a small footprint, making them ideal for forested riparian buffers (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h3 id=\"unique-id-1__82789\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Buffer Zones<\/button>\r\n    <\/h3>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__82789\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>Each riparian agroforestry practice has a different role within the context of a working riparian buffer. Buffers are typically broken out into different \u201czones\u201d in which different practices are applicable in order to sufficiently protect water quality and create high quality habitat. The widths of the different zones, as well as the types of management applied in them, are determined by multiple factors, including regulations, budget, site conditions, water feature type and size, and landowner objectives.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Zone 1 (Inner Zone) \u2013 The innermost zone of a buffer, sometimes called the \u201ccore zone\u201d, is where the greatest water quality and habitat benefits are generated. This zone should be left relatively unmanaged as natural forest, ideally with abundant native species growing densely. While intensive management and harvesting practices should be avoided in this area, it can still be designed to provide opportunities for wild foraging and low impact forms of forest farming (e.g., berry picking, tree syrups, log-grown mushrooms). The width of this zone is typically 25-50\u2032 depending on the type and size of water feature being buffered.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Zone 2 (Middle Zone) \u2013 The area immediately adjacent to the inner zone also provides important riparian protection benefits, and should be managed to maintain a mostly closed forest canopy of native trees. However, this zone is suitable for more intensive forest farming practices (e.g., woods cultivated systems). Silvopasture may also be practiced in this area, if compatible with a closed tree canopy (e.g. flash grazing, living shelters). The width of this zone is typically between 25\u2032-100\u2032, depending on the size of the inner zone, water feature type and size, and landowner objectives.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Zone 3 (Outer Zone) \u2013 The outer most zone is the most flexible to practices that require reduced tree cover like alley cropping and more intensively managed silvopasture systems. The presence of trees and\/or shrubs in this zone provides additional benefits to riparian habitat, but it is less critical to maintain a closed forest canopy at this distance from a water feature. The width of the outer zone will vary based on landowner objectives, size of the other two zones, and recommended buffer size for the site. For example, the WA Department of Ecology recommends a 215\u2032 total buffer width between all zones, although this is not always feasible.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"864\" height=\"260\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/08\/BufferProfile_withlabels1.png\" alt=\"A graphic depicting a cross-section of a stream with a working riparian buffer with different zones labelled.\" class=\"wp-image-945\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/08\/BufferProfile_withlabels1.png 864w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/08\/BufferProfile_withlabels1-300x90.png 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/08\/BufferProfile_withlabels1-768x231.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 864px) 100vw, 864px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Riparian agroforestry practices should be applied appropriately to protect and enhance riparian function.  Graphic created by G. Steffen, WSU CAHNRS Communications<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/div>\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/?page_id=211\">Forest Farming Crop Profiles<\/a><\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>In Washington State, there is less region-specific research and guidance available for forest farming compared to eastern states, but no less opportunity. The technical components of forest farming depend greatly on the crops being grown.  For more information in on individual crops with potential in Washington State, check out the crop profiles page.  <\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-carousel\" data-desktop-columns=\"3\">\r\n    <button class=\"wsu-carousel__button-prev\" aria-label=\"Previous slide\"><\/button>\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-carousel__wrapper swiper-wrapper\">\r\n            \n<article class=\"wsu-card\">\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-image-frame wsu-image--ratio-16-9\">\r\n\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/maplesyrup\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/Tap-1-scaled-e1742248382345.jpg\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsrcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/Tap-1-scaled-e1742248382345.jpg 1888w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/Tap-1-scaled-e1742248382345-300x284.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/Tap-1-scaled-e1742248382345-1024x968.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/Tap-1-scaled-e1742248382345-768x726.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/Tap-1-scaled-e1742248382345-1536x1452.jpg 1536w\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsizes=\"(max-width: 1888px) 100vw, 1888px\"\r\n\t\t\t\talt=\"A close up photo of a plastic tap and tubing draining sap from a maple tree.\"\r\n\t\t\t\tstyle=\"object-position: 50% 50%\"\r\n\t\t\t\t\/>\r\n\t\t<\/a>\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-card__content\">\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"wsu-title \">\r\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/maplesyrup\/\">\t\t\t\tBigleaf Maple Syrup\t\t\t<\/a>\t\t<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"wsu-caption\">\r\n\t\t\tTap native bigleaf maple trees to produce a high-value syrup with a unique flavor.  \t\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\r\n\t<a class='wsu-card__link' href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/maplesyrup\/\" aria-hidden=\"true\" tabindex=\"-1\" ><\/a><\/article>\n\n<article class=\"wsu-card\">\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-image-frame wsu-image--ratio-16-9\">\r\n\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/shiitake\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20220711_113043-scaled.jpg\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsrcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20220711_113043-scaled.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20220711_113043-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20220711_113043-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20220711_113043-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20220711_113043-1536x2048.jpg 1536w\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\"\r\n\t\t\t\talt=\"A perfectly ripe shiitake mushroom grows from a red alder log beneath a forest canopy.\"\r\n\t\t\t\tstyle=\"object-position: 50% 50%\"\r\n\t\t\t\t\/>\r\n\t\t<\/a>\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-card__content\">\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"wsu-title \">\r\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/shiitake\/\">\t\t\t\tForest Cultivated Shiitake Mushrooms\t\t\t<\/a>\t\t<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"wsu-caption\">\r\n\t\t\tGrow high-quality shiitake mushrooms using small-diameter trees thinned from your forest. \t\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\r\n\t<a class='wsu-card__link' href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/shiitake\/\" aria-hidden=\"true\" tabindex=\"-1\" ><\/a><\/article>\n\n<article class=\"wsu-card\">\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-image-frame wsu-image--ratio-16-9\">\r\n\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/oregongrape\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20231102_141951-scaled.jpg\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsrcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20231102_141951-scaled.jpg 1920w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20231102_141951-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20231102_141951-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20231102_141951-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20231102_141951-1536x2048.jpg 1536w\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsizes=\"(max-width: 1920px) 100vw, 1920px\"\r\n\t\t\t\talt=\"Oregon grape growing in the understory of a forest.\"\r\n\t\t\t\tstyle=\"object-position: 50% 50%\"\r\n\t\t\t\t\/>\r\n\t\t<\/a>\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-card__content\">\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"wsu-title \">\r\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/oregongrape\/\">\t\t\t\tOregon Grape\t\t\t<\/a>\t\t<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"wsu-caption\">\r\n\t\t\tMahonia (spp.) can be cultivated in a forest understory and harvested for medicinal products, food, and decorative greenery. \t\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\r\n\t<a class='wsu-card__link' href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/oregongrape\/\" aria-hidden=\"true\" tabindex=\"-1\" ><\/a><\/article>\n\n<article class=\"wsu-card\">\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-image-frame wsu-image--ratio-16-9\">\r\n\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/ginseng\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/GB01-e1745255333406.jpg\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsrcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/GB01-e1745255333406.jpg 687w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/GB01-e1745255333406-300x262.jpg 300w\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsizes=\"(max-width: 687px) 100vw, 687px\"\r\n\t\t\t\talt=\"Ginseng plants grown in rows beneath a forest canopy.\"\r\n\t\t\t\tstyle=\"object-position: 50% 50%\"\r\n\t\t\t\t\/>\r\n\t\t<\/a>\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-card__content\">\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"wsu-title \">\r\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/ginseng\/\">\t\t\t\tGinseng\t\t\t<\/a>\t\t<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"wsu-caption\">\r\n\t\t\tAmerican ginseng is a high-value medicinal herb commonly forest farmed in the Appalachians with potential to be grown beneath hardwood forests in the Pacific Northwest.\t\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\r\n\t<a class='wsu-card__link' href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/ginseng\/\" aria-hidden=\"true\" tabindex=\"-1\" ><\/a><\/article>\n\n<article class=\"wsu-card\">\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-image-frame wsu-image--ratio-16-9\">\r\n\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/ramps-wild-onion\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/ramps-for-sale-at-east-end-food-coop-may-2011-low-rez.jpg\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsrcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/ramps-for-sale-at-east-end-food-coop-may-2011-low-rez.jpg 974w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/ramps-for-sale-at-east-end-food-coop-may-2011-low-rez-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/ramps-for-sale-at-east-end-food-coop-may-2011-low-rez-768x576.jpg 768w\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsizes=\"(max-width: 974px) 100vw, 974px\"\r\n\t\t\t\talt=\"Ramps ready for sale with a small sign indicating they are 15.99 per pound\"\r\n\t\t\t\tstyle=\"object-position: 50% 50%\"\r\n\t\t\t\t\/>\r\n\t\t<\/a>\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-card__content\">\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"wsu-title \">\r\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/ramps-wild-onion\/\">\t\t\t\tRamps\t\t\t<\/a>\t\t<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"wsu-caption\">\r\n\t\t\tRamps (Allium spp.), also called wild onion, are spring ephemerals that inhabit forests in the eastern U.S. and are commonly forest farmed for their bulbs and leaves.\t\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\r\n\t<a class='wsu-card__link' href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/ramps-wild-onion\/\" aria-hidden=\"true\" tabindex=\"-1\" ><\/a><\/article>\n\n<article class=\"wsu-card\">\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-image-frame wsu-image--ratio-16-9\">\r\n\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/wasabi\/\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\t\t\t<img decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/20250410_164917-scaled-e1744405141898.jpg\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsrcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/20250410_164917-scaled-e1744405141898.jpg 1194w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/20250410_164917-scaled-e1744405141898-249x300.jpg 249w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/20250410_164917-scaled-e1744405141898-850x1024.jpg 850w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/20250410_164917-scaled-e1744405141898-768x925.jpg 768w\"\r\n\t\t\t\tsizes=\"(max-width: 1194px) 100vw, 1194px\"\r\n\t\t\t\talt=\"A single wasabi plant growing in a stream\"\r\n\t\t\t\tstyle=\"object-position: 50% 50%\"\r\n\t\t\t\t\/>\r\n\t\t<\/a>\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t<div class=\"wsu-card__content\">\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"wsu-title \">\r\n\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/wasabi\/\">\t\t\t\tWasabi\t\t\t<\/a>\t\t<\/h3>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"wsu-caption\">\r\n\t\t\tWasabi is a semi aquatic plant cultivated for its leaves and root, which is used in Asian cuisine.  Wasabi can be cultivated in forested riparian soils, particularly in or near springs and seeps. \t\t<\/div>\r\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\r\n\t<a class='wsu-card__link' href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/wasabi\/\" aria-hidden=\"true\" tabindex=\"-1\" ><\/a><\/article>\n        <\/div>\r\n    <button class=\"wsu-carousel__button-next\" aria-label=\"Next slide\"><\/button>\r\n    <div class=\"wsu-carousel__pagination\"><\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-callout  wsu-border--color-crimson wsu-color-background--gray-5\" >\r\n        \n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h3 id=\"unique-id-1__97074\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Forest Farming and Traditional Ecological Knowledge<\/button>\r\n    <\/h3>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__97074\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>Of all agroforestry practices, forest farming arguably has the deepest roots in the traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) created by indigenous peoples. This is true worldwide, but the Pacific Northwest has some of the finest examples. Although there are fewer examples of forest farming in the region available today, it was once a widespread practice developed and utilized by tribes. For instance, a study from Simon Fraser University recently found evidence of forest gardens being tended and managed near known indigenous settlements. These gardens consisted of food, fiber, and medicine producing trees, shrubs, and plants, and were cultivated in forest canopy gaps where greater sunlight was available. Oak woodlands, which at one time grew throughout much of the Puget Sound region and parts of southwest Washington, were historically managed by indigenous people for a variety of foods, including acorns, camas, and wild game. Cultural burning, or the intentional use of fire, was used to clear the understory of these forests, stimulate forage for wild ungulates, maintain camas beds, and reduce weevil populations that damage acorns. <\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"768\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20241114_184158-768x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Frank Lake stand behind a table of indigenous food ingredients.\" class=\"wp-image-759\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20241114_184158-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20241114_184158-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20241114_184158-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20241114_184158-1536x2048.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20241114_184158-scaled.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 768px) 100vw, 768px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Dr. Frank Lake, USDA, prepares acorn soup topped with seaweed or hucklberries as a demonstration of culturally important foods (Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>As we learn more about the methods and scale of indigenous forest management, we come to understand that the idea of untouched \u201cvirgin\u201d forests pre-colonization is misleading. Although the management was vastly different from how most forests are managed today, indigenous peoples left a significant footprint on the landscape, and much of that management could be considered forest farming or other forms of agroforestry. Although some of that knowledge has been lost, many tribes and indigenous communities with access to land continue to implement these practices and pass them down to younger generations. The <a href=\"https:\/\/sites.google.com\/ecotrust.org\/ian\">Indigenous Agroforestry Network<\/a>, a program led by EcoTrust, is helping to support the expansion and adoption of this traditional ecological knowledge in agroforestry among tribes and indigenous communities in the region.<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Goal Setting<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Forest farming is an inherently flexible practice and can be designed to meet the diverse values and objectives of forest owners and farmers.&nbsp; Consider the objectives below and how they might impact the design of your system:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Commercial production \u2013 Forest farming systems designed for commercial production will generally have fewer crops to maximize efficiency.&nbsp; These systems will also require more acreage and inputs, making access and asset protection more important.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Personal use \u2013 Forest farming is a great way to produce crops for personal use.&nbsp; People interested in designing a forest farm for this function will generally include a wider diversity of crops and focus on ways to complement their personal production throughout the year.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Wildlife habitat \u2013 Forested riparian buffers provide habitat to both aquatic and terrestrial wildlife. Forest farms designed with wildlife habitat in mind will focus on selecting native tree species with wildlife and pollinator benefits while retaining or creating habitat features on site, such as snags and habitat piles.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Carbon \u2013 Forest farming systems naturally sequester carbon which may provide landowners with opportunity to receive carbon payments. Systems designed for carbon will focus on ensuring sufficient tree stocking, vigorous tree growth, and maintaining forest health.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Water Quality \u2013 Forest farms can operate with little impact on the forests ability to provide water quality enhancement benefits.&nbsp; Forest farmers can maximize these benefits by ensuring there is sufficient vegetation close to water sources and minimizing or eliminating inputs like pesticides and fertilizers.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Aesthetics and Recreation \u2013 Forest farming systems will maintain or even enhance the recreation and aesthetic benefits of a forest.&nbsp; The spaces used for forest farming can also be designed for other uses like camping, birding, and hunting.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-callout\" >\r\n        \n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\">Forest Farming Case Studies<\/h2>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/20240223_102011-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"The entrance to Neil's Bigleaf Maple Syrup sugarshack with Neil standing out front.\" class=\"wp-image-371\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/20240223_102011-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/20240223_102011-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/20240223_102011-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/20240223_102011-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/20240223_102011-2048x1536.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Neil, of Neil&#8217;s Bigleaf Maple Syrup, stands outside his sugar shack.  Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension. <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\">Neil&#8217;s Bigleaf Maple Syrup<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\">Maple sugaring (i.e. making maple syrup) is a common forest farming practice and supports a billion dollar industry.  Until recently, the commercial industry occurred exclusively in eastern states but, thanks to new sugaring technology, Washington State producers are now able to produce syrup from bigleaf maple commercially.  Neil&#8217;s Bigleaf Maple Syrup was among the first to do it and has innovation has helped him adapt to a new industry and a changing climate.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-cta  wsu-text-align--center\" >\n\t<a \t\t\t\t\thref=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/casestudy-neil\/\"\t\n\t\tclass=\"wsu-button \">\n\t\t\t\n\t\tRead Neil&#039;s Bigleaf Maple Syrup Case Study\t\t\t<\/a>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/Food-forests-3-1-e1752790254504-1024x735.png\" alt=\"A yurt in the wood with native vegetation around it.\" class=\"wp-image-754\" width=\"526\" height=\"377\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/Food-forests-3-1-e1752790254504-1024x735.png 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/Food-forests-3-1-e1752790254504-300x215.png 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/Food-forests-3-1-e1752790254504-768x552.png 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/Food-forests-3-1-e1752790254504.png 1043w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 526px) 100vw, 526px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Huckleberry, salal, and trailing blackberry grow under a managed native forest overstory. Courtesy photo: Jake Stewart.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading has-text-align-center\">Sweetwater Farm Food Forest<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"has-text-align-center\">Food forests are a type of forest farming whereby areas are planted with multiple layers of forbs, shrubs, and trees to occupy all vertical strata.  Food forests are often planted on their own in urban settings or on farms.  However, they can also be planted in canopy gaps of a forest, including in riparian buffers, where greater light is available.  Sweetwater Farm decided they wanted to plant a food forest to maximize use of their forestland, increase farm income, and diversify production.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-cta  wsu-text-align--center\" >\n\t<a \t\t\t\t\thref=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/foodforestcasestudy\/\"\t\n\t\tclass=\"wsu-button \">\n\t\t\t\n\t\tRead Sweetwater Farm&#039;s Case Study\t\t\t<\/a>\n<\/div>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Site Assessment<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Many forest farming crops require specific growing conditions, so the site assessment and selection process take on greater importance.&nbsp; Proper site selection will reduce incidence of disease while improving crop vigor and yields (Burkhart, 2024).&nbsp; Landowners with large buffers and\/or adjacent forested acreage will have more flexibility in site selection than a landowner who is limited to a narrow forest buffer, which is often the case on agricultural lands.&nbsp; However, even inside a buffer there can be significant variation in site conditions, including existing vegetation, hydrology, slope, and micro-climates (e.g., frost pockets).&nbsp; When designing and planting a riparian buffer, you may consider widening it in some areas to include habitat that you believe will better for growing a particular crop.&nbsp; In this section we will discuss how site conditions influence the design of forest farming system, including some examples of crops with high potential in our region.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h3 id=\"unique-id-1__23588\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Topography<\/button>\r\n    <\/h3>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__23588\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>The topography of a site is described by its slope, aspect, and elevation.&nbsp; These factors can have significant influence on what kind of vegetation grows naturally in that area, as well as what could be cultivated.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Elevation is not likely to vary enough within a given site to have significant impacts on what can be grown there but knowing the elevation range of your site is important.&nbsp; Higher elevations are more likely to experience freezing conditions during the winter months and will have a slightly shorter growing season, which may not be suitable for some crops.&nbsp; Small changes in elevation within a site can also impact site conditions.&nbsp; For instance, low areas where cool air collects and cannot easily escape create frost pockets.&nbsp; These areas experience freezing conditions earlier in the fall and later in the spring, which can damage new growth on plants.&nbsp; Identifying frost pockets during planning and designing them with frost-hardy species can help avoid damage or mortality.&nbsp; Similarly, upslope areas and ridgetops are generally subject to greater wind pressure, which can damage trees and reduce air and soil moisture.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Slope measures the steepness, or gradient, of a given site and is often expressed as a percentage (e.g. 20% slope) or a degree (e.g. 10\u00b0 slope).&nbsp; Many riparian buffers will include sloped areas like streambanks.&nbsp; The intensity of slope will affect how water drains, organic matter accumulates, and the level of difficulty involved in maintaining a forest farming system.&nbsp; Gentle to moderate slopes of 5-15% are generally ideal for forest farming because they allow for adequate drainage and organic matter accumulation, while remaining easily workable.&nbsp; Steeper slopes may be viable but are more difficult to maintain.&nbsp; Flat slopes (less than 5%) are also suitable for forest farming but are more likely to have poor drainage.&nbsp; These sites should be monitored during the winter months to determine if there is a risk of ponding or overly saturated soils that could would affect crop selection.&nbsp; See the Soils section for more information on how soil drainage can impact crop selection.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"473\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_132536-1024x473.jpg\" alt=\"A forested slope leading down into a stream lush with riparian vegetation. \" class=\"wp-image-605\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_132536-1024x473.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_132536-300x139.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_132536-768x355.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_132536-1536x710.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_132536-2048x946.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Forested slopes leading down into streams and drainages can be excellent locations for forest farming because they tend to be cooler, have more moisture, and protected from harsh winds (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Aspect describes the cardinal direction that a slope faces.&nbsp; North and east facing slopes will experience less intense sun exposure and usually have greater moisture availability.&nbsp; These sites are better for crops that have higher moisture demands or are sensitive to heat. South and west facing slopes are exposed to direct mid-day and afternoon sun and face greater heat stress and soil evapotranspiration.&nbsp; For sites like this, crops that are more tolerant of dry conditions and heat may be more suitable, such as Oregon grape.&nbsp; West-facing slopes are also likely to experience greater wind pressure, especially closer to the coast.&nbsp; Extreme wind events may damage understory crops and overstory trees.&nbsp; Dry winds can have a desiccating effect that can reduce relative humidity and moisture availability. The aspect that is best for your forest farming system will be highly dependent on the crops you select and their site needs. In the northeastern United States, ginseng is commonly grown on north and east facing slopes to take advantage of the greater moisture (Burkhart, 2024).&nbsp; It can still be grown on other aspects but may require special care.&nbsp; It should also be noted that greater soil moisture and relative humidity because of aspect or other site conditions can increase the risk of disease in some crops.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h3 id=\"unique-id-1__49555\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Soils<\/button>\r\n    <\/h3>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__49555\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>Soil characteristics, including texture, acidity, drainage, and organic matter levels, will have significant influence on a forest farming system. &nbsp;Soil traits can vary significantly even in small areas.&nbsp; Over time, land managers come to know variations in their soils well, especially in terms of hydrology.&nbsp; Riparian buffers are likely to have more consistent soil characteristics because of their proximity to water features but prospective forest farmers should keep this potential variation in mind when planning and designing a buffer.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Soil texture refers to the relative amount of sand, silt, and clay in a soil.&nbsp; The texture effects how water moves through the soil (i.e. drainage). By nature, riparian soils will have greater moisture content compared to upland habitats but can still include a range in textures, from well drained, sandy soils to hydric, clay soils.&nbsp; This is especially true along the gradient of a slope.&nbsp; Upper slopes will be better drained than toe slopes or flat areas adjacent to a waterway. &nbsp;Many tree species have high moisture needs but don\u2019t do well in standing water and instead prefer sites where water is available as it drains through the soil, such as bigleaf maple (<em>Acer<\/em> <em>macrophyllum<\/em>) or western redcedar (<em>Thuja<\/em> <em>plicata<\/em>).&nbsp; Understory crops can be equally affected by drainage. For instance, ramps (<em>Allium tricoccum<\/em>) can grow well in moist soils on toe slopes next to streams or adjacent to wetlands where the soils are slightly better drained.&nbsp; Others, like wasabi (<em>Eutrema<\/em> <em>japonicum<\/em>) or Devil\u2019s Club (<em>Oplopanax<\/em> <em>horridus<\/em>), require saturated soils year-round.&nbsp; It\u2019s also important to consider seasonal changes in water levels throughout the year and how that could impact a potential crop.&nbsp; Plants growing in overly wet conditions that are not adapted to it may struggle to establish, grow poorly, or be subject to disease.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>You can determine the texture and drainage of soils on your property using the <a href=\"https:\/\/websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov\/app\/\">Natural Resource Conservation Service\u2019s Web Soil Survey<\/a>.&nbsp; See the tools section at the end of this chapter for guidance on how to use this webtool for your property. &nbsp;The Web Soil Survey can project a map of the soils on your property based on your region, elevation, slope, and other site factors.&nbsp; It is often quite accurate, but it is still valuable to ground truth it by monitoring the hydrology of the area throughout the year and digging up soil samples to examine the texture. Use this <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nrcs.usda.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2022-11\/texture-by-feel.pdf\">NRCS guide (PDF)<\/a> to learn more about testing soil texture by hand.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"568\" height=\"470\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/USDA-NRCS-Soil-texture-triangle.png\" alt=\"A diagram of the soil texture triangle with a side for percent silt, percent clay, and percent sand.  The differing ratios of each determine the type of soil you have. \" class=\"wp-image-606\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/USDA-NRCS-Soil-texture-triangle.png 568w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/USDA-NRCS-Soil-texture-triangle-300x248.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 568px) 100vw, 568px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The NRCS soil texture triangle can be used to determine the texture of your soil, which has significant impacts on drainage. (Graphic: USDA-NRCS)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Acidity, nutrient levels, and organic matter content will also impact how different species are able to establish and grow.&nbsp; These can only be determined through soil tests which requires taking samples and submitting them to a soils laboratory.&nbsp; Testing may or may not be necessary for forest farming and will depend on whether the crops you\u2019re interested in growing have specific nutrient demands.&nbsp; Soil characteristics can vary widely throughout a forested area, which makes accurate testing in this context difficult.&nbsp; So, for forest farming applications, it\u2019s better to do multiple tests in a smaller area than doing a few samples across a broad area.&nbsp; You may also be able to use existing vegetation as an indicator of soil conditions (see the Indicator Species section).&nbsp; Ideal soil characteristics will vary depending on the species you intend to grow, and some species are more sensitive than others to being grown outside those conditions. &nbsp;Soil amendments can be used to improve nutrients, increase organic matter, and manipulate acidity but should applied carefully and minimized in riparian buffers. Visit this <a href=\"https:\/\/puyallup.wsu.edu\/soils\/soils\/\">WSU Extension webpage<\/a> for more resources on soil testing.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h3 id=\"unique-id-1__33028\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Channel Migration Zones<\/button>\r\n    <\/h3>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__33028\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>Channel migration zones (CMZ) are areas where a stream or river channel has the potential to move over time. These occur in floodplains and are the result of gravity, topography, and periods of heavy rainfall. Although they can cause problems for land managers and pose safety threats to communities located near rivers, they are ecologically valuable due to a high diversity of aquatic habitats.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Planning a working riparian buffer in a CMZ poses obvious challenges and risks, and increased heavy rainfall events as a result of climate change is increasing the risk in these spaces. Migrating channels along large waterways have the power to topple mature trees and severely alter forests. Smaller streams and waterways can also experience channel migration, but damage is typically less significant. Although there are methods available for mitigating the impacts of channel migration, these typically require modification of the stream bank and significant investment, making them unfeasible for most producers and subject to regulatory barriers. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>However, if your property is in a CMZ it doesn\u2019t mean you should avoid investing in riparian agroforestry or restoration. Like wildfire or other natural disasters, these are long-term risks, and areas may go decades without any or minimal issues. Furthermore, damage from channel migration can range significantly and won\u2019t necessarily devastate a riparian agroforestry system, especially along smaller streams. The best strategy is to determine your level and scale of risk, if any, and adjust your management accordingly.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"648\" height=\"187\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/08\/CMZ1-r.jpg\" alt=\"Graphic of a channel migration zone over multiple years.\" class=\"wp-image-930\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/08\/CMZ1-r.jpg 648w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/08\/CMZ1-r-300x87.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 648px) 100vw, 648px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">This graphic demonstrates changes in a channel migration zone over time. HMZ \u2013 historical migration zone; AHZ \u2013 avulsion hazard zone; EHA \u2013 erosion hazard area. (Graphic by Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>CMZ\u2019s are most likely to occur in the inner and middle zones of a buffer, especially on smaller waterways, so forest farming systems in working buffers are subject to the most risk. However, CMZ&#8217;s can be large and, in some cases, encompass the entire area you have planned for a buffer. When present, understanding where the CMZ ends on your property will impact the width of your buffer and individual zones, as well as what practices you apply there.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Agroforestry systems are inherently long-term systems and long-term investments, but some forest farming crops are better suited to areas at high risk to disturbances like CMZs. For instance, <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/shiitake\/\">forest cultivated shiitake systems<\/a> can be moved if necessary. <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/maplesyrup\/\">Tree syrup<\/a> operations can also function in a CMZ, although sap collection systems and crop trees may be damaged by flooding. Ground crops face the greatest impacts from channel migration. In this case, short-term crops are better suited to high risk areas compared to crops that require significant time to mature, such as ginseng or fruit-producing shrubs. Channel migration can also severely effect trees and tree crops.  Powerful surges in large waterways can topple trees and long-term changes in hydrology will affect what can survive there.  This doesn&#8217;t mean you shouldn&#8217;t plant trees in CMZs, in fact deep rooted trees can help mitigate erosion damage during channel migration, but selecting tree and crop species with long-term risk in mind is important during the design process. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Many landowners are not effected by channel migration. Identifying a CMZ and determining if a property is at risk requires a thorough study and is a task for an experienced professional. The Washington Department of Ecology has compiled a catalogue of planned and completed publicly available CMZ studies into the <a href=\"https:\/\/ecology.wa.gov\/water-shorelines\/shoreline-coastal-management\/hazards\/stream-channel-migration-zones\">Channel Migration Zone Spatial Data Catalogue<\/a>. Most counties also provide resources and CMZ studies on their websites. However, many streams and rivers remain unstudied. Technical assistance providers, such as conservation districts or NRCS agents, can provide some assistance in identifying basic risk of channel migration, but may not always be equipped to provide detailed assessments.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Read more:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/ecology.wa.gov\/water-shorelines\/shoreline-coastal-management\/hazards\/stream-channel-migration-zones\">Stream Channel Migration Zones \u2013 Washington Department of Ecology<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/storymaps.arcgis.com\/stories\/cf3ca1851659432aa8dace4ee51d09d5\">CMZ Story Map \u2013 Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h3 id=\"unique-id-1__45289\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Indicator Species<\/button>\r\n    <\/h3>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__45289\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>The composition and structure of existing vegetation can provide valuable information about the site.&nbsp; A plant that requires specific site conditions to grow can be considered an indicator species.&nbsp; The presence of these species indicates those conditions are present at a given site, such as soil drainage, acidity, nutrient concentrations, or organic matter levels.&nbsp; The presence or absence of some species, specifically mosses and lichen, can even help determine the air quality of an area.&nbsp; Devil\u2019s club is a good example of an indicator species because it typically grows in wetlands sites with poor drainage where soils are saturated for much of the year.&nbsp; It grows near skunk cabbage (<em>Lysichiton<\/em> <em>americanus<\/em>), western redcedar, and lady fern (<em>Athyrium filix-femina<\/em>), creating a wetland plant community.&nbsp; Similarly, wild lily of the valley (<em>Maianthemum<\/em> <em>dilatatum<\/em>) requires moist, well-drained loamy soils high in organic matter and is often found growing alongside sword fern (<em>Polystichum<\/em> <em>munitum<\/em>), red elderberry (Sambucus <em>racemosa<\/em>), and red huckleberry (<em>Vaccinium<\/em> <em>parvifolium<\/em>) in the understory and an overstory with a significant hardwood component, such as bigleaf maple.&nbsp; There is often overlap between plant communities and habitats, especially in transition areas, but identifying and inventorying the relative abundance of species growing and researching the growing conditions they prefer will help you determine the characteristics of your site.&nbsp; Keep in mind that noxious weeds like Himalayan blackberry, Scotch broom, or English ivy are typically competitive across a wide range of sites and do not reliably indicate site conditions.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220405_175012-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"A picture of a forested wetland with skunk cabbage growing in the foreground. \" class=\"wp-image-419\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220405_175012-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220405_175012-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220405_175012-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220405_175012-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220405_175012-2048x1536.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Skunk cabbage grows in soils that are saturated year round and is an indicator of wetland habitat (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>For individuals establishing a new buffer where few native indicator species are available (e.g. pasture or noxious weeds), relying on topography and soils information will help determine what plant community may have existed on that site previously.&nbsp; When planning for non-native species the goal is to find sites and conditions that are analogous to their native habitat.&nbsp; For instance, in the eastern U.S. ginseng grows in calcium-rich soils with high organic matter content on northeast slopes, often beneath sugar maple (<em>Acer<\/em> <em>saccharum<\/em>) (Burkhart, 2024). &nbsp;In Washington, sites dominated by bigleaf maple, whose leaf litter increases calcium and other macronutrients in the soil (Turk et al., 2008), produce similar conditions and may facilitate ginseng forest farming.&nbsp; WSU Extension is currently exploring this with field trials and the findings will be shared in this Toolkit when they are available. For more information on systematically recording indicator species, see the Forest Inventory section.<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h3 id=\"unique-id-1__83417\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Shade<\/button>\r\n    <\/h3>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__83417\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>Manipulating a forest overstory to achieve ideal light conditions in the understory is a key component of both establishing and maintaining a forest farm.&nbsp; Shade levels are influenced by both the structure and composition of the overstory.&nbsp; Dense forest canopies prevent light from reaching the forest floor while low-density forests will have greater light availability.&nbsp; Conifers provide shade year-round while deciduous (i.e. hardwood) trees only provide shade from April to October.&nbsp; The intensity, type, and timing of shade significantly influence what can be grown there.&nbsp; For instance, spring ephemerals, such as ramps (<em>Allium<\/em> <em>spp<\/em>.) or nettle (<em>Urtica spp.<\/em>), grow best in deciduous forests because they complete most of their growth during early season while light availability is high before the trees leaf out.&nbsp; Whether planting a new forest or modifying an existing one, understanding how shade impacts understory growth is critical.&nbsp;&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"478\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250408_163156-scaled-e1750880986534-1024x478.jpg\" alt=\"Looking up from beneath a canopy of deciduous trees in the spring as trees are beginning to leaf out but are still mostly bare. \" class=\"wp-image-471\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250408_163156-scaled-e1750880986534-1024x478.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250408_163156-scaled-e1750880986534-300x140.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250408_163156-scaled-e1750880986534-768x359.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250408_163156-scaled-e1750880986534-1536x718.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250408_163156-scaled-e1750880986534-2048x957.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/NaturalBufferexamples-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"A lush green forest understory of spring ephemerals growing beneath a canopy of hardwood trees that haven't leafed out yet.  \" class=\"wp-image-113\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/NaturalBufferexamples-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/NaturalBufferexamples-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/NaturalBufferexamples-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/NaturalBufferexamples-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/NaturalBufferexamples-2048x1536.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Spring ephemerals, including weeds like herb Robert, are common in hardwood forests because they do most of their growth in the early spring prior to trees leafing out (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>To determine the amount of light reaching the forest floor, foresters use a tool called a densiometer. This is a handheld device with a concave or convex mirror with a grid engraved on it, which allows you to measure the amount of light reflected at a given point in the understory.&nbsp; A densiometer is relatively inexpensive and can be a worthwhile investment for anyone managing long-term forest farming systems, but a low budget workaround is also available using simple household materials (see below).<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-callout\" >\r\n        \n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Paper Plate Method<\/h4>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>&nbsp;\u201cPlace 10 or more white paper plates at even distances on the ground at approximately noon on a sunny summer day. Count the number of plates that are at least half shaded. Next, divide the number of shaded plates by the total number of plates placed on the ground. Multiply this number by 100 [to determine shade percentage].&#8221; (Apsley &amp; Carrol, 2013)<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>It can be helpful to take multiple measurements throughout the day to determine how shade changes over time.  <\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"754\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_105906-scaled-e1752698515262-1024x754.jpg\" alt=\"Twelve paper plates lined up in a square on the forest floor. Eight of them are at least half shaded.\" class=\"wp-image-608\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_105906-scaled-e1752698515262-1024x754.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_105906-scaled-e1752698515262-300x221.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_105906-scaled-e1752698515262-768x566.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_105906-scaled-e1752698515262-1536x1131.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_105906-scaled-e1752698515262.jpg 1606w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The paper plate method is a (nearly) free way of determining shade.  In this example, twelve plates are used and eight of them are at least half shaded, indicating 66.7% shade.  <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n\n<p>Using a densiometer or the paper plate method will help you find an ideal site for your selected crop, or help you determine whether to manipulate the overstory to increase the amount of light available.&nbsp; This can be done with thinning and\/or pruning, which is described in the &#8220;Adapting a Forest for Forest Farming&#8221; section.&nbsp; Optimum shade levels will vary by crop species and is typically described as percentage, although sometimes more general terms are used (e.g., dense shade, moderate shade, etc.).<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--thirds\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"631\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101950-1-631x1024.jpg\" alt=\"A densiometer being held and used to determine shade levels in a forest. The densiomter shows mostly open sky due to a degraded forest canopy.\" class=\"wp-image-623\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101950-1-631x1024.jpg 631w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101950-1-185x300.jpg 185w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101950-1-768x1247.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101950-1-946x1536.jpg 946w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101950-1-1261x2048.jpg 1261w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101950-1-scaled.jpg 1576w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 631px) 100vw, 631px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">A densiometer being used in a forest with a degraded, mostly open canopy. The shade reading at this spot is approximately 50% (Photo: Patrick Shults).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"605\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_102030-scaled-e1752700816188-1024x605.jpg\" alt=\"A dense, tall mix of native vegetation and noxious weeds growing beneath an open forest canopy.\" class=\"wp-image-613\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_102030-scaled-e1752700816188-1024x605.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_102030-scaled-e1752700816188-300x177.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_102030-scaled-e1752700816188-768x454.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_102030-scaled-e1752700816188-1536x907.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_102030-scaled-e1752700816188.jpg 2003w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Partial shade due to a lack of closed forest canopy can lead to pressure from noxious weeds like blackberry (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"630\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101318-630x1024.jpg\" alt=\"A densiometer being held and used to determine shade levels in a forest. The densiometer shows a closed hardwood forest canopy with dapple sunlight coming through.\" class=\"wp-image-622\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101318-630x1024.jpg 630w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101318-185x300.jpg 185w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101318-768x1248.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101318-945x1536.jpg 945w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101318-1260x2048.jpg 1260w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101318-scaled.jpg 1575w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">A densiometer being used in a red alder dominated forest. The shade reading at this spot is approximately 80% (Photo: Patrick Shults).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"607\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686-1024x607.jpg\" alt=\"A mix of native vegetation growing in the understory of a red alder forest.\" class=\"wp-image-614\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686-1024x607.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686-300x178.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686-768x455.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686-1536x910.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686.jpg 1996w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The closed red alder canopy with 80% shade provides conditions for lush understory growth but prevents establishment of shade intolerant noxious weeds (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"630\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113113-1-630x1024.jpg\" alt=\"A densiometer being held and used to determine shade levels in a forest. The densiometer shows a closed conifer forest canopy with very little sunlight coming through.\" class=\"wp-image-621\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113113-1-630x1024.jpg 630w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113113-1-185x300.jpg 185w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113113-1-768x1248.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113113-1-945x1536.jpg 945w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113113-1-1260x2048.jpg 1260w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113113-1-scaled.jpg 1575w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 630px) 100vw, 630px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">A densiometer being used in a young Douglas-fir plantation. The shade reading at this spot is approximately 92% (Photo: Patrick Shults).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"605\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790-1024x605.jpg\" alt=\"A bare understory beneath a conifer plantation. There is little or no vegetation growing underneath.\" class=\"wp-image-615\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790-1024x605.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790-300x177.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790-768x454.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790-1536x907.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790.jpg 2003w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">High levels of dense shade (in this case, 92%) may limit understory growth and require thinning for forest farming operations (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><tbody><tr><td><strong>Shade Percentage<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Description<\/strong><\/td><td><strong>Notes\/Example Crops<\/strong><\/td><\/tr><tr><td>80-100%<\/td><td>Dense shade<\/td><td>Too dense for many forest farming crops, but can be suitable for wasabi, forest cultivated shiitake, and overstory tree crops (maple syrup, boughs, etc.).<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>60-80%<\/td><td>Moderate shade<\/td><td>Ideal for most forest farming crops, particularly medicinals (e.g., ginseng, Oregon grape, goldenseal) and spring ephemerals (e.g., ramps, nettle).<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>30-60%<\/td><td>Light shade<\/td><td>Good for increasing yields and fruit\/nut producing shrubs and decorative greenery like salal.  Not ecologically appropriate in all areas, and may indicate a degraded canopy.  <\/td><\/tr><tr><td>&lt;30%<\/td><td>Partial shade\/Savanna<\/td><td>No longer considered a forest below 30% shade.  Ideal for silvopasture management.<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">This table shows shade percentage ranges, their descriptions, and how they effect forest farming operations.  Keep in mind that shade composition, particularly the ratio of hardwoods and conifers, will also effect what forest farming crops can be cultivated. <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>For more information on how to systematically assess shade throughout a forest, see the Forest Inventory section.<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h3 id=\"unique-id-1__95979\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Accessibility<\/button>\r\n    <\/h3>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__95979\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>Choosing a site that is accessible for you and your equipment is essential to establishing and maintaining a forest farm.&nbsp; Ideal sites will be close to your residence and a limited distance from roads, pathways, or other access points. Although not always necessary, it can be beneficial to be within an operational distance of water and electricity.&nbsp; This is especially true for forest cultivated mushroom systems (i.e. shiitake) or any crops requiring irrigation.&nbsp; <\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<ul>\n<li>Select sites that are close to your residence to allow you to regularly check your plots and avert potential poachers<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Distribute smaller plots over a larger area rather than having one large plot<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Maintain or allow thick vegetation to grow along forest edges, roadways, etc. to reduce visibility<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Mark your boundaries with no trespassing signs<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Install wildlife cameras<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Utilize fencing and cameras if necessary<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"612\" height=\"412\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/istockphoto-158909420-612x612-1.jpg\" alt=\"A sign reading &quot;Private Property - No Trespassing&quot; hung on a tree in the woods.\" class=\"wp-image-424\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/istockphoto-158909420-612x612-1.jpg 612w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/istockphoto-158909420-612x612-1-300x202.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 612px) 100vw, 612px\" \/><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Not all of these will be appropriate or necessary for everyone, but when applied may reduce your risk of loss to theft.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h3 id=\"unique-id-1__32366\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Site Assessment Tools<\/button>\r\n    <\/h3>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__32366\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>There are several tools available to landowners to conduct an \u201carmchair assessment\u201d of your property.&nbsp; These provide helpful background information to compliment your observations on the ground.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.google.com\/earth\/about\/versions\/\">Google Earth<\/a>\n<ul>\n<li>Google Earth is a free mapping program that utilizes satellite images to create maps.&nbsp; It can be used in your web browser, or the \u201cpro\u201d version is available for free download to use on your desktop.&nbsp; Using this program, you can create layers delineate roads, planting areas, and forest farming plots to plan and track your operations.&nbsp; You can also access historic aerial photos to determine past land use on your site.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov\/app\/\">NRCS Web Soil Survey<\/a>\n<ul>\n<li>The Web Soil Survey is a free online tool that generates a soil map which delineates and describes the different soils on your property.&nbsp; The actual soil type boundaries can vary, so it is recommended to ground truth them to the best of your ability.&nbsp; It also generates ratings for soil types against land use practices, such as susceptibility to compaction.&nbsp; For more information on how to generate a Web Soil Survey report for your property, read the WSU Extension Manual EM064 \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/product\/forest-soil-data-for-your-forest-stewardship-plan-2\/\">Forest Soil Data for Your Forest Stewardship Plan<\/a>\u201d.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/landmapper.ecotrust.org\/\">LandMapper<\/a>\n<ul>\n<li>LandMapper is a powerful mapping tool created by <a href=\"https:\/\/ecotrust.org\/\">EcoTrust <\/a>and is specifically available to landowners in Oregon and Washington (as of 2024).&nbsp; Using your address, this program auto-generates several maps, including hydrology, stream type, soil type, forest communities, tree diameter class, canopy cover, and forest density. &nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>County-based parcel maps\n<ul>\n<li>Most counties offer an online GIS portal where you can gain access to information about your parcel, including aerial photos.&nbsp; These portal maps often include layers with information related to local regulations, such as protected wetlands.&nbsp; For information on your parcel, find your local county assessor\u2019s office website.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Keep Reading &#8211; Site Assessment<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.lincolnu.edu\/cooperative-extension-and-research\/forest-farming-site-selection-and-preparation-guidelines.pdf\">Forest Farming Site Selection and Preparation Guidelines \u2013 Lincoln University of Missouri (PDF)<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/hwwff.cce.cornell.edu\/learning.html\">How, When, and Why of Forest Farming:&nbsp; &nbsp;\u2013 Cornell University<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.asdevelop.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/05\/UpS-Rural-Action-Forest-Farmers-Handbook-for-web.pdf\">Forest Farmer\u2019s Handbook \u2013 Rural Action and United Plant Savers \u2013 Chapter 1: Site Assessment (PDF)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h2 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Design and Establishment<\/h2>\n\n\n\n<p>Many landowners, particularly farmers, interested in a working buffer will be \u201cstarting from scratch\u201d, meaning the riparian feature currently limited or no forest vegetation buffering it.&nbsp; The existing vegetation may be forage, shrubs, agricultural crops, grass, noxious weeds, or some combination thereof.&nbsp; Others will be starting with an existing forest and adapting their system under an established canopy of trees.&nbsp; Both scenarios contain unique challenges and benefits.&nbsp; The following sections will discuss some of the important considerations and technical components of designing and establishing forest farming systems with the two different approaches.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Planting a Forest for Forest Farming<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Planting a forest where one does not currently exist is called afforestation.&nbsp; It is not an easy task, but it does provide a landowner with an opportunity to design a forest that meets their objectives, as opposed to working within the composition of an existing forest.&nbsp; Afforestation projects are a particularly high priority for conservation and climate mitigation efforts because the environmental benefits (e.g. habitat, carbon sequestration) are \u201cadditive\u201d, meaning it\u2019s easy to prove that those benefits were not being provided in that space before.&nbsp; There are many resources available, including technical assistance and financial aid, to support afforestation when it overlaps with riparian habitat restoration and buffer establishment. &nbsp;To learn more about these, visit the <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/additionalresources\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"30\">Additional Resources<\/a> page. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Afforestation can be challenging.&nbsp; It\u2019s common to be planting into sites with degraded soils or significant competing vegetation, such as grass and noxious weeds.&nbsp; The next section briefly describes the different components of planting a buffer for forest farming with emphasis on the unique challenges related to working in riparian habitat.&nbsp; <a href=\"https:\/\/hedgerows.extension.wsu.edu\/handbook\/\">The WSU Hedgerows Manual<\/a> is an excellent resource that provides significant detail and planning support for afforestation projects more broadly and can be used in supplement to the information below.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__78905\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Tree Arrangement<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__78905\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>Tree arrangement is a key decision point for any planting project. There are several design approaches available for afforestation projects, each with their own benefits, drawbacks, and ideal applications.&nbsp; The sections below describe multiple different approaches to planting design and how forest farming can be integrated into them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Traditional<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>A traditional afforestation approach utilizes a similar approach to what would occur in a reforestation scenario after a large-scale disturbance like a timber harvest or wildfire.&nbsp; Trees are planted on a grid which results in equidistant spacing.&nbsp; A traditional spacing and density in the Pacific Northwest is usually between 10\u2019 x 10\u2019 (436 trees per acre) and 12\u2019 x 12\u2019 (303 trees per acre).&nbsp; Mortality is common in afforestation scenarios, so planting at a higher density can compensate for anticipated mortality as result of difficult site conditions.&nbsp; The greater competition between trees in high density plantings also encourages prioritization of height growth in trees and will lead to faster canopy closure, which can facilitate forest farming sooner.&nbsp; Higher density plantings usually require thinning after canopy closure to mitigate long-term competition and associated forest health issues, as well as to maintain ideal light conditions for forest farming.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>Traditional timber plantations typically consist of one species.&nbsp; Planting a mix of species, including both deciduous and coniferous trees, is recommended in a riparian buffer to maximize diversity and habitat benefits.&nbsp; This also presents an opportunity to plant \u201ccrop\u201d trees that yield non-timber products, such as western redcedar for boughs, red alder for shiitake logs, or bigleaf maple for maple syrup. &nbsp;You could elect to clump different species together (to create a maple \u201csugarbush\u201d, for instance) or scatter them throughout a buffer.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/waterfrontbuffer1-1024x768.png\" alt=\"Potted trees arranged on a grid ready to be planted next to a river.\" class=\"wp-image-428\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/waterfrontbuffer1-1024x768.png 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/waterfrontbuffer1-300x225.png 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/waterfrontbuffer1-768x576.png 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/waterfrontbuffer1.png 1500w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The traditional planting arrangement is the most common way to establish a riparian buffer and includes planting trees in a grid for uniform coverage (Photo:  Carrie Brausieck, Agroforestry Northwest).\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Variable Planting<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Variable planting is a modified approach to traditional planting where a mix of planting densities and species compositions are used to create structural and species heterogeneity during stand establishment.&nbsp; This approach can enhance the wildlife habitat benefits of a future forest, but also provides opportunity to \u201cmix up\u201d your approach and design a buffer to create conditions for multiple forest farming practices.&nbsp; This is a great approach for a hobbyist forest farmer that wants to make the most of a small buffer and grow multiple crops for personal use.&nbsp; At larger scales, this can help diversify income from a commercial forest farming operation.&nbsp; Here are some tips and ideas for designing a buffer with a variable planting approach:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Change up the density \u2013 Consider changing up your planting density throughout a buffer. Planting at higher densities immediately adjacent to waterways will provide greater water quality benefits over time, especially when adjacent to farmlands.&nbsp; Lower densities may be ideal in areas where you are confident in seedling survival, may have limited access to be able to thin, or in areas you want greater light availability in the understory.&nbsp; Keep in mind that different species will have different recommended spacings.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Vertical diversity &#8211; Consider diversifying the vertical structure of your forested buffer by interplanting shrubs and small trees between your canopy trees or designing small canopy gaps (&lt;0.25 acres) designated just for shrubs.&nbsp; These can be good areas to create native \u201cfood forests\u201d that can provide edible crops for personal use or commercial sale, but also provide significant wildlife habitat.&nbsp; Many species can grow in shade but require greater light availability to produce viable yields, such as huckleberry, elderberry, osoberry, and hazelnut, and cultivating them in canopy gaps can facilitate better production.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Consider a guild approach &#8211; A \u201cguild\u201d approach will help you design a buffer planting with a variety of species compositions.&nbsp; Guilds are groups of species that tend to be found growing together in natural conditions and\/or are well known to complement each other.&nbsp; Guilds often include species that grow in the overstory, midstory, and understory, and are sometimes referred to as a \u201ccomplex\u201d.&nbsp; For instance, salmonberry is often found growing abundantly in the midstory below a red alder dominant stand because it provides light shade and both flourish in riparian soils.&nbsp; These could be paired together in a guild planting.&nbsp; Understory forbs and potential crops are often introduced later after canopy closure or, alternatively, crops with higher light demands can be cultivated between newly planted trees and shrubs until canopy closure.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<ul>\n<li>Work around your site &#8211; When designing a planting of a diverse set of  species, it\u2019s important to be aware of the site conditions, including  microsites.&nbsp; Microsites are small areas where the conditions slightly  differ from the surrounding area, such as small depression where water  might collect or frost pockets.&nbsp; Some species are better at tolerating  these conditions than others, and this can be an opportunity to design  your diversified planting around existing conditions.&nbsp; For instance, <a href=\"https:\/\/betterground.org\/wet-feet-farming\/#:~:text=Wet%20Feet%20Farming%20is%20the,production%20and%20maximize%20ecological%20benefits.\">Wet Feet Farming<\/a>  is an agroforestry approach designed specifically to tackle seasonally  saturated areas of agricultural fields.&nbsp; Similarly, there may be areas  with degraded or excessively dry soils, frost pockets, or sensitive  areas that require unique design.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"683\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/WetFeetFarming-24x36-01-1024x683-1.png\" alt=\"A graphic depicting &quot;Wet Feet Farming&quot; a practice where woody perennials are planted in saturated areas of agricultural fields to maximize production. The graphic shows increased waterflow from upland developments and clearcuts resulting in excess water and reduced drainage in lowland farms. This reduces access and ability to grow crops in those areas. The graphic also shows a saturated area that has been planted with woody perennial species that can tolerate wet soils while producing valuable crops.\" class=\"wp-image-431\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/WetFeetFarming-24x36-01-1024x683-1.png 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/WetFeetFarming-24x36-01-1024x683-1-300x200.png 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/WetFeetFarming-24x36-01-1024x683-1-768x512.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Wet feet farming is a good example of working around site conditions to diversify and maximize production (Graphic by BetterGround). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>The beauty of a variable planting approach is there are very few wrong ways to do it, but it does also require more thought and intention compared to a traditional tree planting.&nbsp; Expect to go through several iterations of your planting design until you feel you\u2019re adequately meeting your objectives.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Miyawaki Planting Method<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>The Miyawaki Planting Method is an afforestation approach developed by Japanese botanist and professor, Akira Miyawaki, to restore native forests on sites facing degraded conditions (Poddar, 2021).&nbsp; It has primarily been studied in arid and tropical environments but may have potential for restoration efforts in the Pacific Northwest, particularly in challenging areas where previous afforestation efforts have failed.&nbsp; The method relies on the idea of restoring a sites \u201cpotential natural vegetation\u201d (PNV).&nbsp; In practice, this means high density plantings of a wide variety of native trees and shrubs that eventually comprise the full vertical strata of a forest (overstory, midstory, and understory). &nbsp;In doing so, the Miyawaki Method mimics natural revegetation of sites. A regional example of this would be to plant Oregon grape, osoberry, cascara, red alder, and western redcedar together because they will occupy different vertical positions in a forest canopy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"682\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/MiyawakiOverheadAfter_DinoKuznik-1-1024x682-1.jpeg\" alt=\"An overhead view of a Miyawaki planting.  A large circular area is densely planted with a mix of shrub and tree saplings.  \" class=\"wp-image-626\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/MiyawakiOverheadAfter_DinoKuznik-1-1024x682-1.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/MiyawakiOverheadAfter_DinoKuznik-1-1024x682-1-300x200.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/MiyawakiOverheadAfter_DinoKuznik-1-1024x682-1-768x512.jpeg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The Miyawaki method creates complex forest conditions quickly by planting densely and diversely.   Photo by Dino Kuznik.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Species selected for planting should be closely examined for suitability to the site. The Miyawaki Method takes a similar approach as the \u201cguild\u201d method mentioned in the previous section, where trees and shrubs are selected in groupings that are known to grow well together but could also be selected for crop production.&nbsp; However, the key feature of the Miyawaki Method is the density of planting, which recommends at least three plants per square meter (or roughly one plant every 1-2 square feet) (Poddar, 2021).&nbsp; This is much higher than traditional afforestation or reforestation plantings.&nbsp; The high density stimulates rapid height growth in the plants and forces quick canopy closure.&nbsp; It also suppresses other competing vegetation and reduces need for maintenance beyond the first few years. However, competition between planted species may increase and the higher density will also significantly increase the cost of the project due to the added plant material and labor.&nbsp; It\u2019s also important to consider that dense plantings are difficult to access and provide limited light to the understory for forest farming, so greater thinning efforts will be required.&nbsp; Given the increased cost, this method is likely best suited for smaller projects and\/or targeting areas with notably difficult site conditions.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Keep Reading<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/354656628_MIYAWAKI_TECHNIQUE_OF_AFFORESTATION\">Miyawaki Technique of Afforestation by Sourik Poddar<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.chelseagreen.com\/product\/mini-forest-revolution\/?srsltid=AfmBOoqbg0FHyIrhZzQLtlClT9MO_Qz7F-a8nJJcue7Rs6GwDjvmCkGP\">Mini Forest Revolution by Hannah Lewis<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/cenv.wwu.edu\/lead\/miyawaki-method\">Miyawaki Method &#8211; Western Washington University<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Alley Cropping<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Alley Cropping is an agroforestry practice where rows of trees or shrubs are planted at distance that allows the cultivation of row crops in the \u201calleys\u201d created between them (USDA, 2025).&nbsp; In agricultural settings, alley cropping systems utilize wide buffers of 30 feet or more to ensure long-term light availability for row crops as the trees grow.&nbsp; In riparian buffers, it\u2019s best to allocate long-term alley cropping systems like these to the outer zone because they will have reduced tree cover compared to a forest (see the <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/alleycropping\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"25\">Alley Cropping Page<\/a>). &nbsp;However, an alley cropping tree arrangement can still be applied to plantings in an inner buffer and has several benefits, particularly if the space is already being used for row crops.&nbsp; In this scenario you would apply a tighter row spacing of 10-20 feet to ensure canopy closure. &nbsp;In the early years after planting, the space between tree rows can continue to be utilized for growing row crops while light availability remains high.&nbsp; For farmers that were row cropping these spaces prior to planting, this can provide a transition period between land uses and mitigate the financial losses associated with sacrificing production in this area while trees establish.&nbsp; As the canopy closes over the rows, landowners can transition to shade tolerant specialty crops like forest medicinals or forest cultivated mushrooms. Fast growing tree species can be used to create ideal shade conditions quickly, such as red alder or black cottonwood, but should be balanced against other objectives like tree crops and habitat benefits.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"859\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/HerbPharm_EricBurkhart-1024x859.jpg\" alt=\"The photo shows black and blue cohosh being grown in a narrow alley between rows of hybrid poplar trees, which are keeping the crop shaded. \" class=\"wp-image-18\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/HerbPharm_EricBurkhart-1024x859.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/HerbPharm_EricBurkhart-300x252.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/HerbPharm_EricBurkhart-768x644.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/HerbPharm_EricBurkhart-1536x1289.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/HerbPharm_EricBurkhart.jpg 1578w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">In this system, hybrid poplar trees were planted in an alley cropping arrangement but at a narrow spacing to provide the ideal shade for forest farming black and blue cohosh between rows.  (Photo:  Eric Burkhart, Penn State)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>If you wanted to extend alley cropping into the outer zone of a buffer and maintain it as a long-term system there, you would utilize a wider spacing (20-60\u2019) and might include non-native crop producing trees (e.g. chestnut, apple, etc.) (University of Missouri, 2018).&nbsp; Alternatively, alley cropping designs can provide temporary grazing opportunities between rows.&nbsp; However, this will likely require fencing to protect trees from the animals.&nbsp; Learn more about this by visiting the <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/silvopasture\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"23\">Silvopasture <\/a>page.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"670\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Early-1024x670.jpg\" alt=\"The graphic shows a recent tree planting next to a stream. Immediately adjacent to the stream, native shrubs and trees are planted more densely, but further away from the stream the trees are planted in an alley cropping arrangement with a narrow alley. Even further out, the alleys become bigger to prevent canopy closure allow for permanent alley cropping.\" class=\"wp-image-438\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Early-1024x670.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Early-300x196.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Early-768x502.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Early-1536x1005.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Early.jpg 1564w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Buffers can be designed to change over time and support ongoing production in that space. Using an alley crop planting approach allows a landowner to temporarily grow row crops between tree rows while they are juvenile. Trees are planted at a narrow spacing closer in the inner and middle zones of the buffer so that it will eventually create a closed canopy forest while trees are planted at a wider spacing in the outer zone and beyond to be maintained for alley cropping longer or permanently. (Graphic created by G. Steffen, WSU CAHNRS Communications)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"664\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Late-1024x664.jpg\" alt=\"This graphic shows the previous tree planting after several years. The area immediately next to the stream is filled with dense, native foliage to protect the waterway. Slightly farther in, the narrow alley cropping has closed canopy but is still allowing for cultivation of shade tolerant crops like log-grown shiitake and herbaceous forest medicinals. Further out in the wide alley cropping system, agricultural crops are cultivated between rows of conifers and hardwoods.\" class=\"wp-image-439\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Late-1024x664.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Late-300x195.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Late-768x498.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Late-1536x996.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/AlleyCropping_Late.jpg 1580w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">As the trees grow and the canopy closes in the interior of the buffer, these spaces can be transitioned to forest farming while the outer zone of the buffer can continue to be utilized for alley cropping.  (Graphic created by G. Steffen, WSU CAHNRS Communications)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"672\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_Early-1024x672.jpg\" alt=\"In this graphic of a recent tree planting next to a stream, trees and shrubs are planted densely immediately adjacent to the stream. Slightly further out, trees are planted in an alley cropping fashion with a narrow alley, and moving further from the stream the alley becomes wider. Animals are able to graze between these rows of trees while light availability is high.\" class=\"wp-image-441\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_Early-1024x672.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_Early-300x197.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_Early-768x504.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_Early-1536x1007.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_Early.jpg 1560w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Just as in the previous graphic, trees are planted at a narrow spacing in the inner and middle zone to facilitate fast canopy closure and establishing native forest to protect the waterway.  These spaces can provide short-term grazing for animals while the trees are young.  Areas in the outer zone can be planted at a wider spacing to facilitate long-term grazing and silvopasture.  Trees must be protected from animals during establishment with fencing, cages or other materials.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"664\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_late-1024x664.jpg\" alt=\"This graphic shows the tree planting from before after several years. Next to the stream, dense native vegetation grows to protect the waterway. Further away, the trees planted with narrow alleys are able to facilitate cultivation of log-grown shiitakes and shade tolerant forest medicinals after canopy closure. Further out, where tree rows are widely spaced, animals are able to continue to graze in the alleys.\" class=\"wp-image-442\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_late-1024x664.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_late-300x195.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_late-768x498.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_late-1536x996.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Silvopasture_late.jpg 1580w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">As the trees grow and the canopy closes in the interior of the buffer, these spaces can be transitioned to forest farming while the outer zone of the buffer can continue to be utilized for silvopasture.  (Graphic created by G. Steffen, WSU CAHNRS Communications)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Ultimately, the method of afforestation that is right for you will depend on a combination of your goals, resources, and site conditions.&nbsp; A mixture of methods may be the best approach.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__65902\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Species Considerations<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__65902\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>Although planting a new forest can be challenging, it presents a great opportunity to design a forest specifically for forest farming.&nbsp; By selecting native overstory and midstory species that fit your economic, personal use, or environmental objectives, you can maximize the benefits your future forest will provide.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Selecting trees that will produce valuable crops will maximize the income or personal use opportunities from your forest.&nbsp; Examples of this include bigleaf maple for syrup, western redcedar for boughs, willow (<em>Salix spp.<\/em>) for basketry, and red alder (and other hardwoods) to use as substrate for <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/shiitake\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"246\">forest cultivated shiitake<\/a>.&nbsp; Choosing multiple species that produce crops will diversify your income and potentially allow you to spread production throughout the year.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The species you select to comprise your overstory during forest establishment will have significant impacts on the density and timing of shade.<span>&nbsp; <\/span>This will dictate what you\u2019re able to grow in the understory after canopy closure. <span>&nbsp;<\/span>Although thinning and pruning are powerful tools that allow you to manipulate shade density, some shade characteristics can only be achieved by the presence of certain species.<span>&nbsp; <\/span>For instance, the timing of shade provided by deciduous trees facilitate the growth of spring ephemerals like ramps and stinging nettle, which do most of their growing before overstory trees leaf out in the spring.<span>&nbsp; <\/span>Shade density can vary significantly between species too. For instance, western redcedar produces a much denser shade than Douglas fir or Ponderosa pine.<span>&nbsp; <\/span>Among hardwoods, bigleaf maple produces a denser shade than red alder, Oregon oak (<i>Quercus<\/i> <i>garryana<\/i>), or Oregon ash (<i>Fraxinus<\/i> <i>latifolia<\/i>).<span>&nbsp; <\/span>Having a sense of what crops you intend to farm in the understory will help you determine what species or combination of species in the overstory will provide the ideal shade conditions.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"607\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686-1024x607.jpg\" alt=\"A mix of native vegetation growing in the understory of a red alder forest.\" class=\"wp-image-614\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686-1024x607.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686-300x178.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686-768x455.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686-1536x910.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101338-scaled-e1752700838686.jpg 1996w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The closed red alder canopy with 80% shade provides conditions for lush understory growth but prevents establishment of shade intolerant noxious weeds (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"605\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790-1024x605.jpg\" alt=\"A bare understory beneath a conifer plantation. There is little or no vegetation growing underneath.\" class=\"wp-image-615\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790-1024x605.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790-300x177.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790-768x454.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790-1536x907.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_113122-scaled-e1752700858790.jpg 2003w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">High levels of dense conifer shade (in this case, 92%) may limit understory growth and require thinning for forest farming operations (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>The growth rate and form of trees can also influence a forest farming operation. In most cases, fast-growing trees with spreading crowns are favored for buffer establishment over slower growing trees.&nbsp; This reduces the need for maintenance of newly planted areas and achieves canopy closure quicker to allow for establishing understory farming systems.&nbsp; However, this must be balanced against other objectives like growing favored crop trees, creating and maintaining ideal shade conditions, and providing long-term habitat benefits to riparian areas.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Forest resilience is key to maintaining a viable forest farming operations and there are opportunities to enhance the long-term health of buffers during species selection.&nbsp; This refers to the ability of a forest to recover from and adapt to challenges, including both biotic (e.g. root disease, bark beetles) and abiotic (e.g. drought, wildfire) factors.&nbsp; Matching the right species to the site will go a long way to enhance forest resilience by providing those trees with the conditions for vigorous growth.&nbsp; This requires an intimate knowledge of the site you\u2019re planting as well as a familiarity with the silvicultural characteristics of the trees you are planting.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>Climate change is expected to have significant impacts in the Pacific Northwest, including changes in precipitation, increased temperatures, and increases in severe weather (Frankson et al., 2022). Increased summer heat and extended drought (particularly spring drought) has already been tied to the decline of some species in western Washington, including western redcedar and bigleaf maple (Andrus et al., 2024; Betzen et al., 2021). This increases the importance of matching species to site, and also stresses the need to consider drought tolerant species. This is especially true on south and west facing slopes, dry or shallow soils, or along forest edges, in fields, or other open areas where drought and heat are exacerbated. Other climate resilience strategies, such as assisted migration may be worth exploring. Assisted migration involves sourcing seed for native plants from places with hotter, drier conditions or migrating species out of their habitat to match expected future conditions (Handler et al., 2018). Examples of this would be sourcing bigleaf maple seedlings with genetics from northwest Oregon to plant further north in western Washington (i.e. seed zone migration) or planting Oregon white oak outside of its normal habitat because of its drought tolerance (i.e. range expansion). These are low-risk forms of assisted migration, while higher risk practices would include migrating species from far outside of their native habitat, including non-native species like incense cedar or coast redwood (i.e. species migration).<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20230721_120305-768x1024.jpg\" alt=\"A bigleaf maple on the edge of a forest showing signs of bigleaf maple decline. The canopy has died back significantly and remaining foliage is yellowing and small.\" class=\"wp-image-444\" width=\"496\" height=\"661\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20230721_120305-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20230721_120305-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20230721_120305-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20230721_120305-1536x2048.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20230721_120305-scaled.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 496px) 100vw, 496px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Bigleaf maple decline is the result of hotter, drier summers.  Most trees that are affected are in places where drought conditions are exacerbated, such as forest edges.  (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension)\n<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Understanding local and regional pest pressures may also influence your species selection.&nbsp; For instance, emerald ash borer is present in the Pacific Northwest and causes significant mortality in ash trees (<em>Fraxinus<\/em> <em>spp<\/em>.) so it is best to avoid or minimize planting ash while EAB spreads.&nbsp; If you have significant pressure from animals in your area (e.g. deer\/elk, black bear), you may consider planting trees that are less palatable to them, especially if you do not have the resources to adequately protect them. Some native pests are experiencing population growth or spreading to new areas as a result of hotter drier summers making trees more susceptible.&nbsp; For instance, fir engraver beetle (<em>Scolytus<\/em> <em>ventralis<\/em>) populations often spike after bad drought years and can increase damage on true firs like noble fir (<em>Abies procera<\/em>), grand fir (<em>Abies<\/em> <em>grandis<\/em>), and sometimes Douglas-fir.&nbsp; California five-spined ips (<em>Ips paraconfusus <\/em>Lanier) are expanding their range to the Puget Sound region and prey on two-needle pine species (<em>Pinus spp.<\/em>).&nbsp; Being aware of these trends in forest pests will help you determine the best species for your forested riparian buffer.&nbsp; The Washington Department of Natural Resources conducts annual monitoring of forest health pests and releases their findings in a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.dnr.wa.gov\/InsectsAndDisease\">Forest Health Highlights Report <\/a>to support decision making in land management.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The conditions that support forest farming and the conditions that support fish and wildlife habitat overlap greatly, making it possible to design buffers that emphasize crop production while providing significant habitat benefits.&nbsp; Still there are some strategies to consider for maximizing habitat.&nbsp; Native species should be prioritized wherever possible, especially within fifty feet of a stream or other riparian feature.&nbsp; These species will be more likely to provide the necessary food and cover for native wildlife and are more likely to be a resource for pollinators.&nbsp; Non-native trees may not provide adequate habitat but can still help with water quality enhancement, so they can add value in the outer zone of a riparian buffer.&nbsp; Diverse forests provide better habitat compared to single-species plantations.&nbsp; This will also enhance a forest\u2019s resilience to stressors like pests and disease or climate change.&nbsp; Long-lived conifers can be particularly beneficial to the inner and middle zone of riparian buffers to provide long-term shade and down woody debris, but deciduous trees like bigleaf maple and red alder also provide benefits to streams.&nbsp; For example, leaf litter inputs from hardwoods support populations of aquatic macroinvertebrates, which serve as important food sources for fish (Piccolo &amp; Wipfli, 2002).&nbsp; Bigleaf maple is also an important food source for pollinators in the early spring (USDA, 2016).&nbsp; If providing habitat is a primary objective, researching the species present in your area and their required habitat could help inform your species selection.&nbsp;<strong> <\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For more information on species selection, including species tables, planting templates, and nurseries that provide plants, visit the <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/additionalresources\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"30\">Additional Resources Page<\/a>. Technical assistance may also be available to you through state and local programs.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Keep Reading:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.climatehubs.usda.gov\/hubs\/northern-forests\/topic\/assisted-migration-forests\">Assisted Migration &#8211; USDA Northern Climate Hub<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.climatehubs.usda.gov\/hubs\/northwest\/topic\/climate-change-impacts-northwest#:~:text=More%20precipitation%20is%20now%20falling,occurring%20earlier%20in%20the%20year.\">Climate Impacts in the Northwest &#8211; USDA Northwest Climate Hub<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.climatehubs.usda.gov\/hubs\/northwest\/topic\/climate-resilience-guide-small-forest-landowners\">Climate Resilience Guides For Small Forest Landowners (Western Washington\/Eastern Washington) &#8211; USDA Northwest Climate Hub<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dnr.wa.gov\/InsectsAndDisease\">Forest Health Highlights &#8211; Washington Department of Natural Resources<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/wdfw.wa.gov\/species-habitats\">Species and Habitats &#8211; Washington Department of Wildlife<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/trees-of-washington\">Trees of Washington \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.wnps.org\/native-plant-directory\">Washington Native Plant Society<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/woodlandfishandwildlife.com\/\">Woodland Fish and Wildlife<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__46898\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Plant Stock<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__46898\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>When ordering plants for your project, you may have the option to select from different stock types.&nbsp; Stock type refers to how that plant was grown and maintained prior to planting.&nbsp; Each stock type has advantages and disadvantages:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Container plants<\/strong> are grown in containers with potting soil and can vary significantly in size. &nbsp;Many niche plants, particularly shrubs and small trees, suitable for agroforestry are only available in containers from nurseries (e.g., chestnuts, tea plant).&nbsp; Container plants are resistant to damage during transportation and typically have more established root systems, which increases survival. This makes them good for challenging sites. However, they are more expensive than other stock types.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Bare root<\/strong> plants are grown in large quantities directly in the ground at large-scale nurseries for forestry and conservation plantings.&nbsp; The plants are \u201clifted\u201d in the winter while dormant and sold in bulk with their roots exposed.&nbsp; In the period between lifting and planting, special care is required to ensure they remain dormant and roots don\u2019t dry out.&nbsp; Bare root plants have a lower survival rate than container plants, but they are also significantly cheaper.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Plugs<\/strong> are a type of container plant sold by forestry nurseries in bulk.&nbsp; They are much smaller than typical container plants but are good for low-fertility sites and are less expensive.&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Live stakes<\/strong> are segments cut from deciduous trees and shrubs that can be planted directly into the ground.&nbsp; This is a form of asexual (vegetative) reproduction, which means the plant will be genetically identical to the plant it was harvested from.&nbsp; Live stakes are very inexpensive and can be easily harvested from your own property, if available.&nbsp; Willow and poplar (<em>Populus<\/em> <em>spp<\/em>.) are examples of species that can be easily propagated via cuttings.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Many factors can influence the type of stock that is best for your project, but the primary influencers will be soil conditions and your budget.&nbsp; Of course, the availability of seedlings in your preferred stock type can vary significantly from year to year and provider.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Keep Reading:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dnr.wa.gov\/programs-and-services\/forest-resources\/webster-forest-nursery\/plant-right-tree-seedlings\">Plant the Right Tree Seedlings \u2013 WA DNR Webster Nursery<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__13595\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Site Preparation and Planting<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__13595\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Site Preparation<\/h4>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>Exactly as it sounds, the site preparation stage is intended to ready an  area for tree planting and can include several practices necessary to  improve conditions for the species you intend to plant, like soil  amendments, vegetation management, and scarification. &nbsp;However, in most  cases, the primary goal of site preparation will be to eliminate any  existing vegetation that will compete with the species you are planting  while they\u2019re getting established, which is what this section will focus  on. &nbsp;It\u2019s common to see failed plantings where competing vegetation was  not managed.&nbsp; The presence of other vegetation, especially grass or  noxious weeds, will reduce the water and nutrients available to your  seedlings.&nbsp; Some weeds, such as blackberry or Scotch broom, can easily  grow over top of your seedlings and shade them out as well.&nbsp; The effort  required to prepare a site for planting a site will vary significantly  based on the type and density of vegetation growing there.&nbsp; At minimum,  it is recommended to eliminate competing vegetation in a circle within  1-2 feet of the seedling.&nbsp;&#8216;Exactly as it sounds, the site preparation  stage is intended to ready an area for tree planting and can include  several practices necessary to improve conditions for the species you  intend to plant, like soil amendments, vegetation management, and  scarification. &nbsp;However, in most cases, the primary goal of site  preparation will be to eliminate any existing vegetation that will  compete with the species you are planting while they\u2019re getting  established, which is what this section will focus on. &nbsp;It\u2019s common to  see failed plantings where competing vegetation was not managed.&nbsp; The  presence of other vegetation, especially grass or noxious weeds, will  reduce the water and nutrients available to your seedlings.&nbsp; Some weeds,  such as blackberry or Scotch broom, can easily grow over top of your  seedlings and shade them out as well.&nbsp; The effort required to prepare a  site for planting a site will vary significantly based on the type and  density of vegetation growing there.&nbsp; At minimum, it is recommended to  eliminate competing vegetation in a circle within 1-2 feet of the  seedling.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"473\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101614-473x1024.jpg\" alt=\"A maple sapling protected by a tree tube being overgrown by blackeberry.\" class=\"wp-image-629\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101614-473x1024.jpg 473w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101614-139x300.jpg 139w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101614-768x1662.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101614-710x1536.jpg 710w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101614-946x2048.jpg 946w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101614-scaled.jpg 1183w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 473px) 100vw, 473px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Noxious weeds like blackberry can easily grow overtop of seedlings and shade them out.  Regular vegetation management is needed until trees are taller than competing vegetation.  Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Site preparation typically occurs in the growing season ahead of when you intend to plant.&nbsp; For instance, if you intend to plant in November, you might conduct your site preparation of the area sometime between May and September.&nbsp; Generally, it is best to avoid too large of a gap between when you prepare a site and plant so there is limited time for vegetation to grow back. So, it can be advisable to wait until later in the growing season.&nbsp; That said, the best timing for your site prep could vary significantly based on the type of vegetation there and method you choose. &nbsp;For instance, an excellent method for removing invasive blackberry (e.g., Himalayan blackberry) is to cut it back to the ground in the early summer using hand tools or a brush hog, then allowing it to grow back over the remainder of the growing season.&nbsp; Then, in the early fall, use a recommended herbicide to kill the new vegetation.&nbsp; This late season herbicide application ensures the chemical is taken into the roots as the plants go into dormancy, and having mulched the bulk of the vegetation in the early summer ensures the area is accessible and easy to work in.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For more recommendations on how to deal with specific weed species, visit the <a href=\"https:\/\/pnwhandbooks.org\/weed\">PNW Weed Management Handbook<\/a>.&nbsp; In some cases, site preparation may take more than one growing season to adequately remove existing vegetation. &nbsp;In other cases, it may be as simple as removing grass and sod by hand immediately before planting.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>There are several methods of vegetation control available, many of which are described below.&nbsp; Again, the most appropriate method will depend on the type and density of vegetation, other site conditions, and your available resources.&nbsp; <a href=\"https:\/\/ipm.wsu.edu\/\">Integrated pest management (IPM) <\/a>is strongly recommended, which is a strategy that utilizes multiple approaches to managing pests, including unwanted vegetation, efficiently and with limited ecological impacts.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Chemical applications can be used to eliminate competing vegetation efficiently and effectively.&nbsp; Most herbicides are used to kill existing vegetation, but pre-emergent herbicides are also available, which prevent seeds in the soil from sprouting. The use of herbicides in or near riparian areas should be limited whenever possible but may be the best or only viable option, especially for large scale projects where other methods would be too labor intensive or not financially feasible.&nbsp; When using herbicides, always read the label and be aware that some have limited legal applications within certain distance of water and\/or require special licensing.&nbsp; For recommendations on chemical applications for specific weed species, refer to the <a href=\"https:\/\/pnwhandbooks.org\/weed\">PNW Weed Management Handbook<\/a>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hand-weeding using basic tools can often be the most cost-efficient way to prepare a site for planting.&nbsp; It\u2019s effective for small-scale projects or bigger projects where minimal site preparation is necessary.&nbsp; For instance, when planting in grassy areas, an effective strategy is to simply remove the sod layer within 1-2\u2019 of the planting spot and set it aside immediately before planting.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/waterfrontbuffer2-1024x768.png\" alt=\"A tree planter sitting in front of a recently planted Doug fir seedling with a garden hoe in front of them. The sod around the tree has been removed to help its growth.\" class=\"wp-image-429\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/waterfrontbuffer2-1024x768.png 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/waterfrontbuffer2-300x225.png 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/waterfrontbuffer2-768x576.png 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/waterfrontbuffer2.png 1500w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Removing grass and sod within a foot of all sides of a tree seedling will help prevent moisture competition.  (Photo:  Carrie Brausieck, Agroforestry Northwest)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Sheet mulching, also referred to as \u201clasagna composting\u201d, involves layering organic materials (typically 3-6\u201d thick) over a project area.&nbsp; This eliminates existing vegetation prior to planting and will continue suppress vegetation while trees are getting established.&nbsp; Mulching is effective and utilizes materials like cardboard and woodchips, which can often be sourced for free or with limited cost.&nbsp; It also adds organic matter to the soil over time.&nbsp; However, it may add labor to the planting process, especially if you must cut through layers of carboard to get to the soil. Because of the materials required, it is generally more suitable for small to medium sized projects.&nbsp; While mulch can effectively mitigate soil moisture loss through evaporation, it can also reduce soil recharge from rainwater, and may need to be paired with irrigation depending on the materials used.&nbsp; Sheet mulch is also susceptible to being washed away in areas that flood, so it\u2019s important that you know where flooding may occur on your site to determine where other strategies are more appropriate.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0327-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"Cardboard is laid out in rows to sheet mulch ahead of an alley cropping planting. A roll of irrigatino tubing sits on the cardboard.\" class=\"wp-image-451\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0327-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0327-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0327-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0327-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0327-2048x1536.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Cardboard can be bought in rolls and used as sheet mulching to kill grass and other competing vegetation.  Irrigation can be laid beneath the cardboard if necessary. (Photo:  Warren Neth, Cosmic Carrot Farm)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0388-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"Workers spread wood mulch on top of the rows of cardboard after planting.  \" class=\"wp-image-453\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0388-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0388-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0388-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0388-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/IMG_0388-2048x1536.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Wood mulch is laid on top of the cardboard to help secure it and add more organic material.  This is called &#8220;lasagna composting&#8221;\n (Photo:  Warren Neth, Cosmic Carrot Farm)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Keep Reading:&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/piercecd.org\/DocumentCenter\/View\/3148\/Sheet-Mulching?bidId=\">Sheet Mulching:&nbsp; A Quick Guide to Getting Started \u2013 Pierce County Conservation District (PDF)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Solarization is the process of laying clear plastic over a project site to destroy existing vegetation.&nbsp; The plastic covering creates a greenhouse effect, trapping heat and moisture, that kills the plants underneath.&nbsp;&nbsp; This is best done during the growing season to take advantage of warm, sunny days.&nbsp; Depending on the weather, solarization may take 2-3 weeks to effectively kill the vegetation beneath.&nbsp; Occultation is a similar practice, but instead uses opaque materials (e.g. black plastic tarp).&nbsp; Because the material is opaque the greenhouse effect is limited, and the process takes longer (often 3-6 weeks) but landowners are more likely to have these materials already so it can be the more cost-effective option.&nbsp; Solarization and occultation will control vegetation prior to planting but are not recommended for controlling vegetation around planted trees because their heating effect on the soil may damage roots. Although research is limited on this practice, it may have the benefit of killing harmful organisms in the soil, but it will also destroy beneficial organisms.&nbsp; Using an arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculant on the roots of plants during planting may help offset any negative effects solarization or occupation has had on beneficial soil biota.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Keep Reading:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.umn.edu\/planting-and-growing-guides\/solarization-occultation\">Using the Sun to Kill Weeds \u2013 University of Minnesota Extension<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.colostate.edu\/topic-areas\/agriculture\/soil-solarization-an-alternative-to-soil-fumigants-0-505\/\">Soil Solarization: An alternative to soil fumigants \u2013 Colorado State University Extension<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Tilling is a mechanical site preparation strategy that involves ripping or turning over soil in the areas you intend to plant.&nbsp; This kills or sets back existing vegetation and makes soil more workable for planting.&nbsp; This can be particularly helpful in areas with compacted soil and\/or heavy clay components.&nbsp; However, because tilling exposes soil it can create conditions for new weeds to flourish. \u201cStrip tilling\u201d in narrow rows just wide enough to plant in, rather than tilling the entire project area, is recommended.&nbsp; This will limit the weed response and reduce potential for soil erosion. Tilling is sometimes followed with solarization, occultation, or chemical applications to kill the weeds that get established after tilling, thereby depleting the presence of weeds in the seed bed.&nbsp; Tilling should be done carefully in riparian contexts and is not recommended on sensitive soils adjacent to riparian features or on slopes that would accelerate sedimentation into waterways<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Mechanical means (i.e. machinery) may sometimes be necessary to efficiently remove existing vegetation.&nbsp; This is especially true for larger projects and areas where there is significant woody vegetation or other difficult to remove species.&nbsp; Tractors with mulcher attachments (i.e.) masticators and similar machines can make quick work of difficult vegetation and leave behind a thick layer of mulch.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;However, large machinery should be avoided in sensitive riparian sites and wetland soils in winter or spring, or any time the ground is soft.&nbsp; Smaller machines, such as brush hogs, may be necessary on sensitive sites and more effective for smaller projects and can often be rented from farm supply or hardware stores.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Planting<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Whether you\u2019re planting bare root, potted plants, or live stakes, timing is important.&nbsp; In Western Washington, planting should occur after the soils have sufficiently recharged from the dry season and before plants come out of dormancy in the spring.&nbsp; This is typically between November and April.&nbsp; Planting in the fall can provide extra time for plants to establish roots ahead of their first growing season, which can improve drought tolerance and survival.&nbsp; However, it can also expose plants to early frost damage and should be avoided for plants that are sensitive to frost (e.g. red alder) or in areas with significant frost pockets.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>When planting bare root seedlings, be sure to ensure the roots stay moist and cool. Avoid planting on warm, sunny, or windy days. If the roots appear dry, it\u2019s likely that many of the fine roots have already desiccated and are damaged, which makes survival unlikely. Waiting to pick up bare root seedings from the nursery until the day of or day before you intend to plant is recommended. Transport them in a cooler and keep out of the sun while you are working through the planting area. Bare root seedlings can be planted quickly using a dibble bar or planting shovel, which wedges in the ground to open a small gap allowing you to drop the seedling in. However, there are some easy mistakes to make, especially if moving quickly. See the figure to the right for some of the common pitfalls of planting bareroot seedlings and how to avoid them.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"624\" height=\"527\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/seedlingguide.png\" alt=\"A graphical guide demonstrating common errors people make when planting seedlings. Seedling #1 is buried too deep. It's needles are buried, the planting hole is okay, the tree position is poor. Seedling #2 - Too Shallow. Roots exposed, hole too shallow. Seedling #3 - Air Pocket from improper tamping Seedling #4 &quot;L&quot; Roots. The roots were laid sideways while planting and the hole is too shallow. Seedling #5 - &quot;J&quot; Roots. The roots were laid sideways and curved up to form a &quot;J&quot;. The hole is shallow and roots may be exposed to air. Seedling # 6 - Compacted roots. The hole is too narrow and the roots are not properly opened. Seedling #7 - Not vertical. Shallow planting caused by improper digging of hole. The tree is angled as a result. Seedling #8 - Too loose. The soil around the tree is too loose from improper tamping after planting. Seedling #9 - Poor planting soil. Planting in rotten wood, deep duff or debris, not damp mineral soil. Seedling #10 - Satisfactorily planted tree. The tree is straight and planted so that the root collar is level with the soil. Roots are expanded and soil is properly tamped.\" class=\"wp-image-455\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/seedlingguide.png 624w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/seedlingguide-300x253.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 624px) 100vw, 624px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">There are many easy errors to make when planting a seedling.  Taking extra care to avoid them will improve mortality and success.  Graphic from &#8220;Guide to Reforestation in Oregon&#8221; by Oregon State University (2006). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Keep Reading:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dnr.wa.gov\/publications\/frc_webster_plantingforestseedlings.pdf\">Planting Forest Seedlings \u2013 Webster Nursery (PDF)<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/planting-trees-and-shrubs-in-the-landscape-home-garden-series\">Planting Trees and Shrubs in the Landscape \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/catalog\/ec-1438-selecting-planting-caring-new-tree\">Selecting, Planting, and Caring for a New Tree \u2013 OSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__27779\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Protection and Maintenance<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__27779\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Protection<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>In most cases, trees will require protection from animal damage.&nbsp; Deer and elk are common in Washington and will browse the foliage and juvenile shoots of trees and shrubs.&nbsp; This can set back their growth, cause poor form, or kill the tree entirely.&nbsp; Small mammals, such as mice, voles, or rabbits, can also damage seedlings by girdling roots and stems.&nbsp; The type and intensity of pest pressure will vary by site.&nbsp; For instance, mice and vole damage can be particularly bad in overgrown pastures where they have significant cover from predators.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>There are two types of approaches to preventing animal damage to seedlings:&nbsp; tree protection and cultural management.&nbsp; There are several products and methods available for protecting individual or groups of trees.&nbsp; Tree protectors (e.g. tree tubes) are the most commonly used method.&nbsp; They can be used to protect the base and\/or the leader of the trees while they establish.&nbsp; However, they will add $1-2 in cost per tree and often require annual maintenance to move the tube up the tree 1-2 times a year as it grows to continue to protect the top of the tree from deer or elk browse.&nbsp; Likewise, a t-post and fencing material such as chicken fencing or hog wire can be used to create a cage around an individual tree.&nbsp; These materials are more expensive but many farms have them on hand, so they can be effective for smaller planting projects.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"638\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_111947-scaled-e1752702939403-638x1024.jpg\" alt=\"An Oregon white oak seedling growing in a grassy area, surrounded by metal cage staked with a t-post.\" class=\"wp-image-630\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_111947-scaled-e1752702939403-638x1024.jpg 638w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_111947-scaled-e1752702939403-187x300.jpg 187w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_111947-scaled-e1752702939403-768x1233.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_111947-scaled-e1752702939403-956x1536.jpg 956w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_111947-scaled-e1752702939403.jpg 1183w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 638px) 100vw, 638px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Metal caging and a t-post can deter browse from large animals and uses materials many farms have on hand (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"638\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112125-scaled-e1752702960254-638x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Chewing damage at the base of an Oregon white oak seedling\" class=\"wp-image-631\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112125-scaled-e1752702960254-638x1024.jpg 638w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112125-scaled-e1752702960254-187x300.jpg 187w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112125-scaled-e1752702960254-768x1233.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112125-scaled-e1752702960254-956x1536.jpg 956w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112125-scaled-e1752702960254.jpg 1183w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 638px) 100vw, 638px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Cages are excellent for detering browse from elk, deer, and some livestock, but don&#8217;t provide adequate protection from small mammals chewing on the stem (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Fencing can be an option as well but are typically only financially viable for large, multi-acre projects and may be difficult to do in riparian areas.&nbsp; It will take more time to install but generally requires less maintenance than tree tubes.&nbsp; Fences should be a minimum of six feet high to prevent deer from jumping over.&nbsp; In large open areas where deer have more space to jump, eight feet is recommended.&nbsp; A <a href=\"https:\/\/lgpress.clemson.edu\/publication\/managing-deer-damage-using-a-two-tiered-fence-system\/\">\u201ctwo-tiered\u201d fence approach,<\/a> where two shorter fence layers are staggered 4-5 feet apart (with an inner fence and outer fence), has also been successful at preventing deer from gaining enough speed to jump over fences.&nbsp; If using fencing, be sure to provide an access point that is large enough for yourself and any equipment you will need to maintain the area.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>There are also \u201ccultural control\u201d methods of deterring animal damage.&nbsp; This involves altering the environment to make the area inhospitable to pests.&nbsp; For example, building next boxes and perches for large predatory birds can help reduce mice and vole populations when planting into grassy areas.&nbsp; Similarly, reducing vegetation near trees will reduce cover for small pests.&nbsp; \u201cDead wood fencing\u201d, which involves creating a barrier with large woody debris (e.g. logging slash) throughout or around a planted area can help prevent deer and elk browse, which struggle to walk through that type of terrain.&nbsp; Cultural methods are usually not sufficient to protect seedlings on their own but can be used to supplement other protective measures.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-callout\" >\r\n        \n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Paired Planting w\/ Spruce<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>&#8220;Pair planting&#8221; seedlings with Sitka spruce is a new strategy that some forest owners have used to help deter deer, elk, and small mammals from browsing on target seedlings like Douglas-fir or western redcedar.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In this method, Sitka spruce seedlings are planted in the same hole as the desired tree seedling.  Sitka spruce needles are sharp and tough, which deters animals from feeding on the foliage.  Since they have similar growth rates as other conifers, the spruce is often able to intermix with the foliage of the desired seedling and provide protection until it reaches a sufficient height to survive on its own.  At that point, the spruce can be clipped at the base.  Spruce seedlings are cheaper than many forms of tree protection, including tree tubes, so many forest owners that have tried it feel it pencils out economically.  However, it is not known whether competition for moisture, sunlight, or nutrients from the spruce will slow the growth of desired seedlings.  <\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"768\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220429_095108-768x1024.jpg\" alt=\"A Douglas-fir seedling &quot;pair-planted&quot; with a Sitka spruce.  Both trees are planted in the same hole. \" class=\"wp-image-456\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220429_095108-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220429_095108-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220429_095108-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220429_095108-1536x2048.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20220429_095108-scaled.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 768px) 100vw, 768px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">A Douglas fir seedling is pair planted with a Sitka spruce and growing along side it to prevent animal damage.  <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n\n<p>Keep reading:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nrcs.usda.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2022-10\/nrcs141p2_001562.pdf\">Protecting Trees and Shrubs from Deer \u2013 USDA (PDF)<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov\/references\/public\/NE\/Nebraska_Forestry_Tech_Note_72(Reducing_Deer_Browse_Damage).pdf\">Reducing Deer Browse Damage \u2013 USDA (PDF)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Maintenance<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p>Good decision making, site preparation, and tree planting methods will go a long way to improve the survival rate of your planting project but maintenance will still be required over the next several years while they establish.&nbsp; This can include, but is not limited to, moisture management, maintaining animal protection, back planting where trees didn\u2019t survive, and adapting to new and unforeseen challenges.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>Ensuring trees have water available for growth is very important for the  first several years of a trees life while it establishes a sufficient  root system.&nbsp; This can be done by providing supplemental moisture  through irrigation or by cultural methods that reduce moisture loss  during the growing season.&nbsp; Native tree species in our region have  evolved to survive dry summers by completing most or all their annual  growth in the spring to early summer.&nbsp; However, this means that drought  conditions during the spring can be particularly damaging to new  plantings, especially if competing vegetation is present and reducing  water availability.&nbsp; Increasingly hot summers and an extension of the  dry season will exacerbate that damage.&nbsp; Your approach to moisture  management for your seedlings will depend on the resources you have  available and site conditions, specifically soil hydrology.&nbsp; Irrigation  can greatly increase the survival of tree seedlings during drought  conditions but is not always necessary or feasible due to the cost  and\/or site logistics. &nbsp;If using irrigation, drip irrigation methods are  recommended to provide a slow moisture release into the soil.&nbsp;  Providing a layer of mulch within 1-2 feet of the tree will help reduce  soil moisture loss as well as reduce the presence of competing  vegetation.&nbsp; Ideally, this would be done at the time of planting. &nbsp;A  3-4\u201d layer is ideal and should be arranged so that the area within an  inch or two of the base of the tree is kept free of mulch to allow for  air movement and avoid mold or fungal growth.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"581\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112510-scaled-e1752703144889-581x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Mulch at the base of an oak tree seedling surrounded by a cage. The mulch is decaying but still preventing vegetation from growing immediately around the seedling.\" class=\"wp-image-632\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112510-scaled-e1752703144889-581x1024.jpg 581w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112510-scaled-e1752703144889-170x300.jpg 170w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112510-scaled-e1752703144889-768x1354.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112510-scaled-e1752703144889-871x1536.jpg 871w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112510-scaled-e1752703144889-1161x2048.jpg 1161w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_112510-scaled-e1752703144889.jpg 1183w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 581px) 100vw, 581px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Mulch can be an effective way of reducing vegetation immediately around seedlings and retaining moisture in the soils.  However, it can decay quickly so it&#8217;s important to apply a layer at least 3-4&#8243; thick to last several years while the tree establishes.  Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension. <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>In most cases, managing competing vegetation is an ongoing task.&nbsp; Repeating the treatments you used during site preparation or utilizing different methods may be necessary to ensure weeds don\u2019t outcompete the species you planted.&nbsp; However, it\u2019s not necessary to maintain bare earth.&nbsp; Some vegetation is acceptable (and inevitable) but limiting the growth of vegetation within 1-2\u2019 of the trees or shrubs you plant will improve their growth and ensure they are not overtopped by weeds.&nbsp; Reducing vegetation around the trees can also keep that area exposed and reduce cover for pests like mice and voles.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Maintaining your protection from animal damage will also likely take some time each year.&nbsp; For tree tubes, it\u2019s important to ensure that the tube covers the new growth by moving them up the tree one or two times in the growing season.&nbsp; Fencing requires less annual maintenance but should still be monitored for gaps or damage allowing animals to enter.&nbsp; As you maintain and monitor your planting, you may find that additional measures are required to protect your trees.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>For most tree species, maintenance is only necessary in the first several years while the trees establish sufficient root systems and canopies to thrive on their own and develop some resilience to potential stressors.&nbsp; Your new forest would be considered \u201cfree to grow\u201d when you\u2019ve reached a desired number of trees that have successfully established and grown tall enough that the leaders are no longer within reach of deer or elk browsing and cannot be overtopped by competing vegetation (typically 5-6\u2019 tall).&nbsp; For fast-growing species like red alder or black cottonwood (<em>Populus<\/em> <em>trichocarpa<\/em>), this can happen in as little as 2-3 years.&nbsp; For conifers like western redcedar or Douglas-fir, this may take 5-6 years or more. &nbsp;Animal protection can be removed at the free-to-grow point and vegetation management is typically unnecessary beyond this stage as the shade from the canopy will eventually eliminate weed growth, with the exception of shade tolerant weeds (e.g. English ivy, English holly, etc.) or when using a wide spacing that doesn\u2019t support canopy closure. If you intend to graze livestock in the area, the free-to-grow point would also include the trees having sufficient diameter to handle potential rubbing or other damage associated with their presence, which may take a decade or more, depending on the species.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"592\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101857-scaled-e1752769467653-592x1024.jpg\" alt=\"A free to grow tree seedling taller than the vegetation around it.\" class=\"wp-image-660\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101857-scaled-e1752769467653-592x1024.jpg 592w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101857-scaled-e1752769467653-173x300.jpg 173w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101857-scaled-e1752769467653-768x1330.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101857-scaled-e1752769467653-887x1536.jpg 887w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_101857-scaled-e1752769467653.jpg 1183w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 592px) 100vw, 592px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">A tree is considered &#8220;free to grow&#8221; when it is taller than competing vegetation and the reach of browsing animals (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Monitoring is important during the establishment phase to keep watch for damage and mortality.&nbsp; Finding one dead or damaged seedling is not a reason to panic, but it is worth keeping an eye on.&nbsp; If mortality is significant, it may become necessary to spot fill areas where those trees died.&nbsp; You will have to decide what your threshold for action is based on your objectives and available resources.&nbsp; If you decide to replant in areas where mortality occurred, it\u2019s important to do some diagnostic work first. &nbsp;As discussed, animal browse, insufficient moisture, or competing vegetation can all be responsible for seedlings dying but insects, disease, and other environmental factors (e.g., frost, excessive heat) may also play a role. &nbsp;Understanding what is causing the mortality will help you determine your approach for replanting and avoid repeating a mistake.&nbsp; For instance, planting back the same species that was there previously may result in the same issue if the cause of mortality is related to unsuitable site conditions or a disease in the soil (e.g. root disease).&nbsp; If you\u2019re unable to diagnose the issue and mortality or damage is significant, seek advice from a technical assistance provider.&nbsp; The <a href=\"https:\/\/puyallup.wsu.edu\/plantclinic\/\">WSU Puyallup Plant and Insect Diagnostic Laboratory<\/a> also accepts photo submissions for diagnostic support but may require a fee.&nbsp; <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Keep Reading:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/rngr.net\/publications\/field-guide-to-causes-of-seedling-damage-mortality-in-first-year-plantations\/at_download\/file\">Field Guide to Causes of Seedling Damage and Mortality in First Year Plantations \u2013 Industrial Forestry Association (PDF)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>The work of maintaining a forest is never truly over, but once you reach \u201cfree to grow\u201d the level of monitoring and maintenance required is significantly reduced.&nbsp; Putting the proper effort up front will help you avoid failed plantings and financial losses.&nbsp; For support with your project, visit the <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/additionalresources\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"30\">Technical Resources and Financial Resources pages<\/a> to learn about programs that offer landowner assistance through site visits, planning and design, and cost-share.<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Adapting a Forest For Forest Farming<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>While adapting an existing forest to forest farming does not afford the \u201cdesigner\u201d options that establishing a new forest does, it is generally preferred to avoid the costs, labor, and waiting period associated with afforestation.&nbsp; Although there are likely limitations to working within an existing forest, there are still opportunities to manipulate it to provide the proper conditions for whatever crop you intend to forest farm.&nbsp; The following section will describe some of these methods and general guidance for establishing growing crops in the understory of a riparian forest. These will not necessarily apply to forest farming systems that utilize overstory crop trees, such as bigleaf maple sugaring. For specific information related to individual forest farming crops, see the Crop Profiles page.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__6359\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Forest Inventory<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__6359\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>Most beginning forest farmers will start by intensively managing a smaller area of the forest rather than installing a large-scale system, so small-scale assessments of microsites such as measuring shade and soils may be sufficient over broad forest assessments.&nbsp; However, for people wanting to expand on an existing system or engage in practices like maple sugaring that require more forestland, assessing the whole forest will provide valuable information for long-term management and decision making.&nbsp; A forest inventory will help you determine the structure and composition of your forest, which will inform the type and intensity of practices (e.g., thinning) required to provide ideal conditions for forest farming throughout the area.&nbsp; Forest inventory includes multiple forest metrics such as tree size, density, species, and health, as well as other site conditions like shade and understory composition.&nbsp; A <a href=\"https:\/\/forestry.wsu.edu\/consultingdirectory\/\">consulting forester<\/a> can provide a professional-grade inventory of a project area for a fee.&nbsp; It\u2019s particularly important to hire a forester if you\u2019re interested in assessing the timber value of your forest (also called a \u201ctimber cruise).&nbsp; However, a basic inventory can also be done by a landowner using some simple methods and inexpensive tools.&nbsp; Web-based programs like <a href=\"https:\/\/landmapper.ecotrust.org\/\">LandMapper <\/a>and <a href=\"https:\/\/sref.info\/resources\/mobile-apps\/plot-hound\">PlotHound <\/a>are also available to support your forest inventory.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/DougfirForest_shults-1024x576.jpg\" alt=\"An aerial view of a coniferous forest\" class=\"wp-image-635\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/DougfirForest_shults-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/DougfirForest_shults-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/DougfirForest_shults-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/DougfirForest_shults-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/DougfirForest_shults.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Forest sampling works by collecting data on small subsets of the forest (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>A forest inventory relies on population sampling. Similar to how pollsters will ask a subsample of people how they feel about social issues or political candidates to gauge the larger population, a forest inventory measures randomly selected areas to create an informed vision of the whole forest.&nbsp; There are many ways to go about this, but the simplest method is to randomly select points in the forest and establish circular \u201cfixed\u201d plots in which you can take your measurements. &nbsp;The data you collect is then extrapolated to the whole area based on the size of those plots.&nbsp; &nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>A common plot size for small forest owners to use is a circle with a 16.7\u2019 radius.&nbsp; The area inside this circle is 1\/50<sup>th<\/sup> of an acre.&nbsp; Using a measuring tape and a plot center, you can easily determine the perimeter of your plot at each randomly selected location.&nbsp; You can elect to use a larger plot size.&nbsp; For example, a 1\/20<sup>th<\/sup> acre plot has a radius of 26.3\u2019 and will collect more data in those locations.&nbsp; Doing more frequent, small plots is better for diverse forests while fewer large plots are suitable for more uniform forests (e.g. a Douglas-fir plantation).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--thirds\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"481\" height=\"449\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/plot1.png\" alt=\"A graphic demonstrating a circular &quot;fixed&quot; forest inventory plot. The plot center is marked, with a line to the edge of the circle denoting the radius. The plot boundary is the circle.\" class=\"wp-image-457\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/plot1.png 481w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/plot1-300x280.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 481px) 100vw, 481px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">A fixed forest inventory plot is based on a pre-determined radius from a chosen center.  The plot radius is the distance between the plot center and the boundary of the plot (Graphic from &#8220;Basic Forest Inventory Techniques for Family Forest Owners&#8221;, WSU Extension)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"490\" height=\"464\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/product-3356-sku-PNW630.jpeg\" alt=\"The graphic shows the boundary of a fixed plot overlaid on a series of smaller circles intended to represent the location and size of trees.  There are nine circles of various sizes marked blue because they are inside the plot boundary while the remaining circles are marked red as being outside of the plot.\" class=\"wp-image-458\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/product-3356-sku-PNW630.jpeg 490w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/product-3356-sku-PNW630-300x284.jpeg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 490px) 100vw, 490px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Trees that are inside the boundary of the plot are marked in blue, while trees that are red are outside the boundary and would not be considered.  Note that at least half of the area of a tree trunk must be inside the plot boundary to be considered (Graphic from &#8220;Basic Forest Inventory Techniques for Family Forest Owners&#8221;, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-table\"><table><thead><tr><th>Plot Size (acres)<\/th><th>Radius (feet)<\/th><\/tr><\/thead><tbody><tr><td>1\/5<\/td><td>52.7 (52&#8217;8&#8243;)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1\/10<\/td><td>37.2 (37&#8217;2&#8243;)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1\/20<\/td><td>26.3 (26&#8217;4&#8243;)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1\/30<\/td><td>21.5 (21&#8217;6&#8243;)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1\/40<\/td><td>18.6 (18&#8217;7&#8243;)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1\/50<\/td><td>16.7 (16&#8217;8&#8243;)<\/td><\/tr><tr><td>1\/100<\/td><td>11.8 (11&#8217;10&#8221;)<\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Common plot radius values for different sizes of fixed circular plots<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Regardless of plot size and frequency, you will take the same measurements within the perimeter of each plot you create.&nbsp; A forest inventory can consist of a wide variety of metrics depending on the site and objectives.&nbsp; For forest farming, the most important measurements are listed below:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Forest density<\/strong> describes how densely trees are arranged in a forest is most easily measured as trees per acre.&nbsp; Forest density has significant impacts on forest health, shade, and tree growth.&nbsp; It can easily be determined within a plot by counting the number of trees that fall inside the perimeter and multiplying it by the denominator of your plot size.&nbsp; For example, if four trees fall within your 1\/50<sup>th<\/sup> acre plot, it would reflect 200 trees per acre (4 x 50 = 200).&nbsp; What qualifies as a \u201ctree\u201d is typically determined by size and\/or its\u2019 position in the overstory.&nbsp; Trees smaller than 3-4\u201d in diameter are often ignored in a forest overstory assessment but for forest farming they might be included because they will still impact shade levels.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Shade<\/strong> describes the amount of light hitting the forest floor and will have significant impacts on most forest farming operations.&nbsp; It\u2019s typically described as a percentage and is the inverse of light availability.&nbsp; Shade should be determined at each plot location, which can be done with a densiometer or through the paper plate method described in the site assessment section.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Tree size<\/strong> is described as diameter and is measured by using a measuring tape to wrap around the circumference of the tree.&nbsp; This metric helps you understand the average size of trees in the forest and how they vary with species, which can help you determine a thinning prescription if necessary. &nbsp;This can be easily done using a cloth measuring tape and then dividing the number by pi (3.14) to get diameter. &nbsp;However, a <a href=\"https:\/\/www.forestry-suppliers.com\/c\/diameter-tapes\/7-66-391?page=1\">diameter tape<\/a> can be worth investing in, which has the value of the pi incorporated on the tape and eliminates the need for any math.&nbsp; Regardless of the tool used, diameter should be taken at \u201cbreast height\u201d, which is standardized to 4.5\u2019 off the ground for consistency.&nbsp; Determine and record diameter for each tree inside your plot.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Species <\/strong>is also important to record inside your plots for each tree.&nbsp; This will allow you to figure out how metrics like diameter vary between species. The relative frequency of species will also help you determine dominant type of shade (e.g. conifer versus hardwood).&nbsp;<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Understory vegetation <\/strong>is worth assessing given you may either be tending existing populations of understory crops or establishing other plants.&nbsp; Understory plants are also often some of the best indicator species and can help you better understand your site.&nbsp; A rough \u201ceye assessment\u201d is usually sufficient and can be as simple as recording what is present, and possibly including the relative composition (e.g. 20% sword fern, 10% salal, etc.). Noting the presence of invasive species like Himalayan blackberry or English ivy can also be valuable for your management.&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-callout\" >\r\n        \n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">There are many books, guides, and online resources available to help you identify trees, shrubs, and understory plants growing in your forests:<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast \u2013 Pojar &amp; MacKinnon (multiple vendors \u2013 <a href=\"https:\/\/www.jmichaelsbooks.com\/pages\/books\/303708\/jim-pojar-andy-mackinnon\/plants-of-the-pacific-northwest-coast-washington-oregon-british-columbia-and-alaska-revised\">J Michaels Books<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Plants-Pacific-Northwest-Coast-Pojar\/dp\/1772130087\">Amazon<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/lonepinebooks.com\/product\/plants-of-the-pacific-northwest-coast-6\/\">Lone Pine Books<\/a>)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/trees-know-oregon-washington\">Trees to know in Oregon and Washington \u2013 OSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/trees-of-washington\">Trees of Washington \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a> (Free PDF available)<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/wsupress.wsu.edu\/product\/native-trees-of-western-washington\/\">Native Trees of Western Washington \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.wnps.org\/\">Washington Native Plant Society<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n\n<p>The following are optional metrics that may or may not be useful to include in your forest inventory:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Tree height<\/strong> may be valuable to better understand the structural composition of the forest.&nbsp; However, it can be more difficult to determine accurately without investing in forestry tools.&nbsp; A forestry stick (also called a \u201cBiltmore stick\u201d) can give you a rough estimate for height.&nbsp; These are cheap to buy and it\u2019s also possible to <a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/simple-homemade-forestry-tools-for-resource-inventories\">make one yourself<\/a>.&nbsp; Clinometers or rangefinders will give you more accurate measurements but are much more expensive.&nbsp; Since the process is a bit cumbersome, heights are often only taken for one tree (randomly selected) within the plot.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Tree cores<\/strong> can provide good data but similarly require investment in specialized forestry equipment.&nbsp; Tree cores can provide two valuable pieces of information: age and growth rate.&nbsp; A tree core is taken using an increment borer, which is a specialized hollow drill bit that is manually drilled into the center of the tree perpendicular to the growth rings.&nbsp; The result is a small cylindrical subsample of the wood that allows you to count the number of growth rings to determine age.&nbsp; Age can be helpful to understand where a tree is in its lifespan and what to expect in the future.&nbsp; Red alder, for instance, only lives to be 60-80 years old and often starts to decay as early as fifty years old.&nbsp; The growth rate of trees can be determined by examining the relative size of the growth rings.&nbsp; It\u2019s common to see more narrow growth rings occur because of increased competition from surrounding trees, which indicates the need for thinning.&nbsp; Similar to heights, this process can be time consuming is often only done for one tree per plot. <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><strong>Tree health <\/strong>can also be very valuable to assess while you\u2019re completing your plots.&nbsp; Determining if a tree is suffering from a pest, disease, or other stressor may help you decide if you want to keep it in favor of retaining healthier trees.&nbsp; Pockets of root disease, for example, are great spaces to create small gaps where more sunlight can penetrate and allow you to cultivate species that produce better with higher light availability (e.g. thimbleberry, hazelnut).&nbsp; To better understand and evaluate tree health, read the WSU Extension Publication \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/assessing-tree-health\">Assessing Tree Health<\/a>\u201d.&nbsp; Additional resources are available at the end of this section.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162627-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"The photo shows a tree having fallen down in the forest due to root disease.\" class=\"wp-image-460\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162627-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162627-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162627-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162627-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162627-2048x1536.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Areas with fallen trees due to root disease create canopy gaps that can be planted and managed as forest gardens (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Once you\u2019ve collected your data, interpreting it for forest farming applications can be straightforward as well.&nbsp; However, a technical assistance provider will be able to use their experience to better translate that information to land management and\/or help you with the inventory itself.&nbsp; For more information on technical assistance available to you, visit the <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/additionalresources\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"30\">Additional Resources<\/a> page.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>If doing it yourself, start by averaging some of the data across all your plots. Averaging is done by adding up the individual numbers then dividing by the number of data points.&nbsp; For instance, if you did four plots and the shade levels were 90%, 80%, 90%, and 70% shade, simply add those together and divide by four to get 82.5% shade for the forest. &nbsp;&nbsp;Average density (trees per acre) can be done the same way, remembering that you must first get trees per acre value in each plot by multiplying the total number of trees in the plot by the acreage represented in your plots (e.g. for a 1\/50<sup>th<\/sup> acre plot, multiply by 50).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Diameter should be averaged by species to determine how they differ in size.&nbsp; Determining relative species composition is a little trickier.&nbsp; You do this by first determining the number of times each species occurs in the plots, averaging them, and then multiplying by plot size to determine the number of trees per acre it represents.&nbsp; For instance, if you had four 1\/50<sup>th<\/sup> acre plots and red alder was present twice in the first plot, once in the second plot, none in the third plot, and twice in the fourth plot, average those numbers (2+1+0+2 = 5, then 5\/4 = 1.2) to determine that red alder occurs 1.2 times every 1\/50<sup>th<\/sup> acre.&nbsp; This means that there are an estimated 60 red alder trees per acre across your forest (because 1.2 x 50 = 60).&nbsp; Do this for each species to determine their relative population in the forest.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Using the data you collected on shade percentage and total tree density will help you determine if you need to reduce density or take other actions to meet your forest farming needs.&nbsp; This, combined with the numbers you determined for average size and relative density of species will help you develop a course of action (discussed in the Thinning section).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Some landowners may prefer to skip the inventory step and simply \u201ceye\u201d it.&nbsp; For small projects (less than an acre) or for people that have significant experience thinning forests, this may be a viable option.&nbsp; However, if you are working larger acreages and\/or don\u2019t have experience with forest management, knowing the forest you\u2019re working in before getting started can be immensely helpful.&nbsp; Remember, you can\u2019t put trees back on the stump!<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Keep Reading:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/assessing-tree-health\">Assessing Tree Health \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/basic-forest-inventory-techniques-for-family-forest-owners\">Basic Forest Inventory Techniques for Family Forest Owners \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/forests\/health-management\">Forest Health and Management \u2013 OSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/landmapper.ecotrust.org\/\">LandMapper<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=mASpgmF8L20\">Making a Biltmore Stick \u2013 Alabama Extension (Video)<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/simple-homemade-forestry-tools-for-resource-inventories\">Simple Homemade Forestry Tools for Resource Inventories \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__31716\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Thinning and Pruning<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__31716\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Thinning<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>Thinning is a forest management practice by which trees in a stand are strategically selected for removal to benefit the growth of remaining trees, as well as forest health and function.&nbsp; In the context of forest farming, thinning is often applied to increase the amount of sunlight reaching the forest floor.&nbsp; The intensity of thinning will be determined by the shade and light requirements of your desired crops and density of the existing canopy (see the Forest Inventory section and the Site Assessment section for more information on assessing existing shade conditions).&nbsp; Thinning will not always be required to establish a forest farming system or, in the case of small projects, may be as simple as removing 1-2 trees.&nbsp; However, as forests are in a state of constant growth and change, understanding thinning as a tool to maintain ideal light conditions is an important part of being a forest farmer.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>There are several different approaches to thinning.&nbsp; The three types described below are common forms used in the Pacific Northwest and methods with special application to forest farming.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Thinning from below is the most common form of thinning in our region, especially in conifer plantations.&nbsp; Smaller and poorly formed trees are removed from the canopy to achieve an ideal tree density and leave behind the best performing trees.&nbsp; The removal of trees reallocates resources to those remaining while leaving a relatively high stocking rate for harvesting. This type of thinning supports vigorous growth and timber production.&nbsp; For forest farming, thinning from below is ideal for supporting existing overstory trees and retaining denser shade conditions for crops that require it like ginseng or wasabi (Burkhart, 2024; Miles &amp; Daniels, 2019).&nbsp;<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Thinning from above is a much less common form of thinning in the Pacific Northwest, but is common to hardwood forests in the eastern U.S.&nbsp; It is the inverse of thinning from below, which means trees that are dominant or co-dominant in the canopy are harvested to \u201crelease\u201d or support the growth of species growing in the understory.&nbsp; This practice might be applied when the species comprising the overstory are less desirable and a forest owner wants to support shade tolerant trees growing below to recruit into the overstory.&nbsp; An example of this in Western Washington would be thinning out a decaying red alder stand to release western redcedar or western hemlock growing in the understory.&nbsp; Thinning from above can be a useful tool for forest farmers where they want to grow crops that yield better under higher light conditions, such as elderberry or huckleberry.&nbsp; However, opening the canopy too much can allow noxious weeds to get established (e.g. Himalayan blackberry).&nbsp; Historically, thinning from above has been distorted and used as an excuse to harvest the most valuable trees in the overstory while leaving behind low-value trees (also called \u201chigh-grading\u201d). &nbsp;This practice can negatively impact forests for decades and should not be considered an option for sustainable forest management.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Variable density thinning (VDT) is a mixed approach with the goal of increasing structural and species diversity in a forest that lacks those characteristics (Bekris et al., 2021). \u201cSkips\u201d and \u201cgaps\u201d are created to produce heterogeneous tree cover.&nbsp; Skips are areas that are left unthinned and relatively dense, while gaps are small areas where all trees are harvested.&nbsp; The spaces between these are thinned to a variety of target densities. This diversifies forest structure, which in turn benefits forest functions like wildlife habitat.&nbsp; From a forest farming perspective, these mixed light conditions can be planned and utilized to grow a variety of crops.&nbsp; For instance, gaps are excellent spaces for growing trees and shrubs that yield better under higher light conditions and\/or creating \u201cfood forests\u201d that can sustain multiple crop species.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"850\" height=\"362\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/vdt.png\" alt=\"A graphic showing a dense, unthinned forest from above on the left.  On the right, the forest has been thinned using variable density thinning methods.  Areas have been left uncut and are marked as &quot;skips&quot; where dense vegetation will continue.  There are several areas where all trees have been harvested to create prescribed openings or &quot;gaps&quot;.  The remaining space has been thinned to varying levels of density and is marked as the &quot;thinned matrix&quot;. \" class=\"wp-image-462\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/vdt.png 850w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/vdt-300x128.png 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/vdt-768x327.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 850px) 100vw, 850px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Variable density introduces heterogenous structure to forests and can align well with forest farming operations (Graphic from Linders et al. 2010).  <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162608-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"The photo shows a gap in the canopy of a forest looking up from below.\" class=\"wp-image-461\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162608-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162608-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162608-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162608-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162608-2048x1536.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Creating small canopy gaps as a part of a variable density thinning regime helps create heterogenous forest structure, and these gaps can also be utilized for forest farming. (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Regardless of approach, thinning to reach a target density and shade level for forest farming can be difficult to do on your own if you have limited experience with forest management, especially for larger projects.&nbsp; A skilled <a href=\"https:\/\/forestry.wsu.edu\/consultingdirectory\/\">forester<\/a> can assess the density of your existing stand and then write a thinning prescription for hitting a target density.&nbsp; They can also mark trees for removal that will help meet those light conditions and your other desired objectives.&nbsp; If you\u2019re thinning project includes targetting large trees with commercial timber value, a forester can navigate a timber sale for you and are often able to negotiate better prices for the logs you sell.&nbsp; This will help you mitigate costs associated with thinning operation, or perhaps turn a profit.&nbsp; If your project requires thinning large, commercially valuable trees but the size of the job is not large enough to attract a logger, you may still consider hiring a skilled tree feller to do the work (especially if you are not experienced in felling large trees).&nbsp; This will reduce risk of injury to yourself and mitigate damage to the remaining trees in the forest.&nbsp; <a href=\"https:\/\/forestry.wsu.edu\/sawmilldirectory\/\">Small-scale sawmill<\/a> operators are available to mill logs into lumber you can use on site or sell.&nbsp; Some also offer tree felling services. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The ideal shade level will depend on the species you intend to grow in the understory but is generally between 60-80% shade for most forest farming crops (Bardhan &amp; Kronenberg, n.d.), remembering also that for spring ephemerals like <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/ramps-wild-onion\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"324\">ramps<\/a>, the timing of shade is equally as important as density.&nbsp; Thorougly research the crop you\u2019re interested in growing to understand it\u2019s light demands prior to thinning. &nbsp;Recognize too that some species can establish and grow in shade, but are unlikely to yield well in those conditions and are therefore not ideal for forest farming in riparian forests. For instance, berry-producing species like osoberry or evergreen huckleberry often grow in 60-80% shade, but their berry yields will be significantly limited by the lack of light.&nbsp; If you\u2019re only growing for personal consumption, this may not be an issue but it is not likely to be sufficient for forest farmers with interests in commercial production.&nbsp; Higher light levels are needed to provide sufficient yields in many berry producing species, which is not conducive to riparian forests where canopy closure is important for habitat.&nbsp; However, crops like these can be grown at smaller scales in small forest gaps within buffers and along forest edges where more light is available, or in the outer zone of a buffer where reduced canopy cover will have a limited effect on riparian habitat.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Translating an ideal shade level to a target tree density (trees per acre) can be challenging, but will help you develop a strategy for thinning.&nbsp; In relatively uniform stands where trees are mostly the same species, age, and size, reducing shade level can be done in proportion to the existing tree density.&nbsp; For example, reducing a Douglas-fir plantation with 90% shade and 300 trees per acre to 60% shade can be as simple as removing a third of the trees down to 200 trees per acre. In diverse forests comprised of trees of a variety of species and sizes, the relative density and proportion of shade contributed will vary from tree to tree.&nbsp; This requires more finesse in your thinning, and relying more heavily on the species distribution data you collected in your forest inventory.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For instance, if your data shows that there is a significant portion of old (50+ years) red alder trees in your forest, you may target those trees first as they have short lifespans and won\u2019t provide long-term shade.&nbsp; They also have smaller, less dense canopies that would allow you to \u201cfine tune\u201d the shade level in the understory with their removal.&nbsp; Of course, you have to weigh targetting a species for reducing shade against your desire to retain them on site for other purposes such as a crop they can produce (e.g. syrup, boughs), potential habitat benefits, or whether the type or timing of shade they provide is valuable (i.e. seasonal versus yearround).&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-callout\" >\r\n        \n\n<h6 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Thinning Example Using Forest Inventory Data<\/h6>\n\n\n\n<p>Let\u2019s say your forest inventory returned the data below describing the relative proportion by species and their average size.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>The forest has an average 350 trees per acre and 90% shade.&nbsp; The species level data is as follows:<ul><li>Red alder \u2013 200 trees per acre, Avg diameter: 8.5\u201d<\/li><\/ul><ul><li>Bigleaf maple \u2013 100 trees per acre, Avg diameter: 7\u201d<\/li><\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li>Douglas-fir \u2013 50 trees per acre, Avg diameter: 10\u201d<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>With this existing composition and size, we can tell that that dominant tree species is red alder (57%), followed by bigleaf maple (29%) and Douglas-fir (14%).&nbsp; This is a common composition for forests that were harvested within the last twenty years and were planted back with Douglas-fir but were mostly outcompeted by naturally regenerated hardwoods.&nbsp; You\u2019ve decided that you want to grow ramps, so your target shade level is going to be around 70%.&nbsp; Ramps are a spring ephemeral, so it will also be important that you retain a significant hardwood component to provide high light conditions during the early season before leaf-out.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To determine a thinning prescription, start by deciding the relative importance of the species available for retention based on your objectives.&nbsp; In this case, let\u2019s say we want to prioritize keeping Douglas-fir as much as possible because it is long-lived and produces a potential timber crop and bigleaf maple because you are considering tapping them for maple syrup.&nbsp; Starting at 90% shade and reducing to 70% means you\u2019ll need to reduce shade by roughly 25% (because 70 is 27% of 90).&nbsp; Translated direclty to trees per acre, this means you\u2019ll likely be removing around 80-90 trees per acre (25% of 350 is 88).&nbsp; Since the composition is mixed and species affect shade differently, this is just an estimate but can serve as rough guide.&nbsp; You may also consider thinning more heavily, knowing that these trees are young and will continue to grow and produce more shade.&nbsp; Slightly overshooting your target may reduce your need to thin in the future but should be done thoughtfully.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To understand how a target density translates to individual tree selection, think of your inventory plot.&nbsp; As a thought exercise, imagine you have a 1\/50<sup>th<\/sup> acre plot that represents the average composition of the forest.&nbsp; Because each tree represents 50 trees per acre, in this plot you would have two bigleaf maples, four red alders, and one Douglas-fir tree. Given the existing density and your objectives of retaining Douglas fir and bigleaf maple, you would likely focus on removing red alders.&nbsp; Removing 80-90 trees per acre would translate to removing 1-2 trees within this plot.&nbsp; Therefore, removing two red alder, targetting the poorest performing trees, would likely be sufficient to meet your objective while still retaining a signicant deciduous component to grow spring ephemerals.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In practice, the placement and distribution of trees will vary and probably not make things quite as easy as in this example.&nbsp; It is also not feasible to divide the whole area into 1\/50<sup>th<\/sup> acre plots and treat the forest that way.&nbsp; However, using this as a guide for the relative proportions of trees you should be targetting will help you reach your ideal density and composition throughout the area.&nbsp; In this example, there would likely be scenarios where removing Doug-fir or bigleaf maple may be the only way to achieve the right shade conditions.&nbsp; In those situations, you will need to decide if it is worth it to remove them.&nbsp; Of course, it\u2019s important to keep in mind other factors like retaining trees that are healthy and vigorous when making your selections.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20180615_135255-1024x576.jpg\" alt=\"A red alder stand that has been thinned showing lush green understory growth. \" class=\"wp-image-465\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20180615_135255-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20180615_135255-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20180615_135255-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20180615_135255-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20180615_135255-2048x1152.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Red alder stands can be ideal for forest farming because they produce a lighter shade, but still require thinning to maintain ideal light conditions (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20181027_110531-1024x576.jpg\" alt=\"A Douglas-fir plantation that has been thinned and shows understory vegetation growing beneath.\" class=\"wp-image-464\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20181027_110531-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20181027_110531-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20181027_110531-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20181027_110531-1536x864.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20181027_110531-2048x1152.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">A properly thinned conifer plantation will allow for growth of understory vegetation while continuing to grow valuable timber products (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>For very small understory forest farming plots dealing with microsites (&lt; 0.5 acres), an inventory and thinning prescription are likely overkill and a landowner may decide to simply \u201ceye it\u201d.&nbsp; However, understanding the concepts for managing larger areas will still be valuable for small projects.&nbsp; If using the \u201ceye it\u201d approach, be sure to remove trees slowly and check the shade level in the area you intend to install your plot after each tree to see how you are approaching your target.&nbsp; Start with smaller, suppressed trees and shrubs rather than going directly to felling larger trees (unless your objective is to create a small canopy gap).&nbsp; Thinning on a sunny day while the leaves are on the trees (in the case of deciduous trees) will be important for tracking your progress. Perfection is not the goal with thinning for forest farming.&nbsp; Even with the most meticulous work shade levels will continue to vary.&nbsp; So, simply shoot for achieving a range or average for your whole project area.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Although not discussed here, keep in mind that some state and local regulations may restrict your ability to thin within a certain distance of a stream or other riparian feature.&nbsp; The type and intensity of restrictions will depend on the characteristics of the stream, such as whether it is season or non-seasonal and whether it is fish-bearing.&nbsp; For more information, see the Regulations section of the <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/additionalresources\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"30\">Additional Resources<\/a> page.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Pruning<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>Pruning will have a more limited effect on shade than thinning and is good for \u201cfine-tuning\u201d the amount of light hitting the forest floor. &nbsp;Depending on the composition of your forest, it may or may not be necessary, or even an option, for altering shade levels. Most shade-intolerant trees (e.g. red alder, Douglas-fir) are good at self-pruning lower limbs when there is sufficient competition for light from nearby trees. &nbsp;Shade tolerant species (e.g. western redcedar, western hemlock) tend to retain lower branches longer and may require pruning when used as cover for forest farming.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>Pruning will have a more limited effect on shade than thinning and is good for \u201cfine-tuning\u201d the amount of light hitting the forest floor. &nbsp;Depending on the composition of your forest, it may or may not be necessary, or even an option, for altering shade levels. Most shade-intolerant trees (e.g. red alder, Douglas-fir) are good at self-pruning lower limbs when there is sufficient competition for light from nearby trees. &nbsp;Shade tolerant species (e.g. western redcedar, western hemlock) tend to retain lower branches longer and may require pruning when used as cover for forest farming.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pruning is best done while trees are dormant, between November and March, to reduce the risk of spreading pests and disease and minimize damage to the bark.&nbsp; However, it\u2019s difficult to determine shade impacts of pruning on deciduous trees in the winter, so it may be necessary to do it during the growing season.&nbsp; In this case, target late summer to early fall (late August to October) as trees are beginning to go into dormancy at that time.&nbsp; When pruning, never remove more than 30-50% of the canopy in a year.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Pruning trees also produces higher quality timber products.&nbsp; It is especially important when growing high-value products like veneer. &nbsp;Limbs that grow larger than 2-3\u201d will decrease wood quality. Harvesting and selling timber is subject to restrictions within a certain distance of streams and other features, depending on the stream size and type. &nbsp;Refer to the <a href=\"https:\/\/dnr.wa.gov\/forest-regulation\/forest-practices-application\/forest-practices-illustrated\">Washington Department of Natural Resources Forest Practices Illustrated Guide<\/a> to learn more. <\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"683\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/andy-683x1024.jpg\" alt=\"A man in an orange forestry vest prunes the lower limbs off of a Ponderosa pine tree with a pruning saw. \" class=\"wp-image-468\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/andy-683x1024.jpg 683w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/andy-200x300.jpg 200w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/andy-768x1152.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/andy-1024x1536.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/andy-1365x2048.jpg 1365w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/andy-scaled.jpg 1707w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 683px) 100vw, 683px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Pruning can help fine tune ideal light conditions for forest farming, but also has other benefits like reducing ladder fuels and improving timber quality (Photo:  WSU Extension).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Keep Reading:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/conifer-pruning-basics-for-family-forest-landowners-2\">Conifer Pruning Basics For Family Forest Owners \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.missouri.edu\/publications\/g5160\">Pruning Forest Trees \u2013 University of Missouri<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/dnr.wa.gov\/forest-regulation\/forest-practices-application\/forest-practices-illustrated\">Forest Practices Illustrated &#8211; WA DNR<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__28473\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Site Preparation<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__28473\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>When establishing a forest farming operation in lower density forests, existing canopy gaps, and hardwood-dominant forests, site preparation to eliminate existing understory vegetation will likely be required.&nbsp; Generally, site preparation in an existing forest will be less intensive than what is required in afforestation contexts due to shade limiting vegetation growth.&nbsp; The same options described in the \u201cPlanting a Forest for Forest Farming\u201d section are available but may be applied differently in this context. &nbsp;The most appropriate method will depend on existing vegetation, site conditions and your available resources.&nbsp; <a href=\"https:\/\/ipm.wsu.edu\/\">Integrated pest management (IPM) <\/a>is strongly recommended, which is a strategy that utilizes multiple approaches to managing unwanted vegetation efficiently and with limited ecological impacts.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Hand pulling and removal is a feasible strategy for eliminating existing vegetation when the project area is small, there is limited existing vegetation to deal with, or if you have help available to provide additional labor.&nbsp; This method limits soil disturbance and chemical inputs.&nbsp; Herbaceous species can often be uprooted by hand or with the help of hand tools.&nbsp; Woody perennials and shrubs can be cut at the base but may come back (depending on the species).&nbsp; Hand-cutting and a \u201ccut stump\u201d herbicide treatment can be very effective for removing woody perennials.&nbsp; However, their removal is not always necessary, especially if the shade they provide is valuable.  In some cases, simply raking back leaf and woody debris is sufficient to establish forest farming plots. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"473\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151715-1024x473.jpg\" alt=\"A person using a brush cutter to prepare a forest farming plot. \" class=\"wp-image-1013\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151715-1024x473.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151715-300x139.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151715-768x355.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151715-1536x710.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151715-2048x946.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The level of site preparation necessary will vary based on what is growing there.  In this photo, the dominant vegetation in the understory was sword fern.  The ferns were cut and uprooted, but the fronds were reserved to use as mulch in forest farming plots.  Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension. <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Chemical applications can be used to eliminate competing vegetation efficiently and effectively.&nbsp; Most herbicides are used to treat existing vegetation, but pre-emergent herbicides are also available, which prevent seed from sprouting.&nbsp; The use of herbicides in or near riparian areas should be limited wherever possible but are an effective strategy for removing vegetation during site preparation.&nbsp; They are particularly suitable to large projects where other methods are not financially viable.&nbsp; When using herbicides, always read the label and be aware that some have limited legal applications within certain distance of water and\/or require special licensing. For recommendations on chemical applications for specific weed species, refer to the <a href=\"https:\/\/pnwhandbooks.org\/weed\">PNW Weed Management Handbook<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Sheet mulching, also referred to as \u201clasagna composting\u201d, involves layering organic materials (typically 3-6\u201d thick) over an area you intend to plant.&nbsp; This eliminates existing vegetation prior to planting and will continue to suppress vegetation while your crop species are getting established.&nbsp; Mulching utilizes materials like cardboard and woodchips, which can often be sourced for free or with limited cost and add organic matter to the soil over time.&nbsp; However, it may add labor to the planting process, especially if you must cut through layers of cardboard to get to the soil for planting.&nbsp; While mulch can effectively mitigate soil moisture loss through evaporation, it can also reduce soil recharge from rainwater. Sheet mulch is also susceptible to being washed away in areas that flood, so it\u2019s important that you know where flooding may occur on your site to determine where other strategies are more appropriate. &nbsp;Mulching pairs well with raised forest beds (see \u201cDesigning a Forest Farm\u201d section), which involves bringing in supplemental soil or compost to create better growing conditions for crops.&nbsp; Establishing a layer of mulch below the raised bed will reduce unwanted vegetation from growing in them.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Keep Reading:&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/piercecd.org\/DocumentCenter\/View\/3148\/Sheet-Mulching?bidId=\">Sheet Mulching:&nbsp; A Quick Guide to Getting Started \u2013 Pierce County Conservation District (PDF)<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Solarization is the process of laying clear plastic over a project site to destroy existing vegetation.&nbsp; The plastic covering creates a greenhouse effect, trapping heat and moisture, that kills the plants underneath.&nbsp;&nbsp; This is best done during the growing season to take advantage of warm, sunny days.&nbsp; Depending on the weather, solarization may take 2-3 weeks to effectively kill the vegetation beneath.&nbsp; Occultation is a similar practice, but instead uses opaque materials (e.g. black plastic tarp).&nbsp; Because the material is opaque the greenhouse effect is limited, and the process takes longer (often 3-6 weeks) but landowners are more likely to have these materials already so it can be the more cost-effective option.&nbsp; These practices may have limited application in forest farming settings given the reduced light availability on the forest floor.&nbsp; However, they may still be effective at eliminating existing vegetation when working in canopy gaps or low shade conditions (50% or less), but the process will take longer. Solarization and occultation will control vegetation prior to planting but are not recommended for controlling vegetation afterwards because their heating effect on the soil may damage crop roots.&nbsp;&nbsp; Although research is limited on this practice, it may have the benefit of killing harmful organisms in the soil, but it will also destroy beneficial organisms.&nbsp; Using an arbuscular mycorrhizal inoculant on the roots of plants during planting may help offset any negative effects solarization or occupation has had on beneficial soil biota.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Keep Reading:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.umn.edu\/planting-and-growing-guides\/solarization-occultation\">Using the Sun to Kill Weeds \u2013 University of Minnesota Extension<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.colostate.edu\/topic-areas\/agriculture\/soil-solarization-an-alternative-to-soil-fumigants-0-505\/\">Soil Solarization: An alternative to soil fumigants \u2013 Colorado State University Extension<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Tilling is a mechanical site preparation strategy that involves ripping or turning over soil in the areas you intend to plant.&nbsp; This kills existing vegetation and makes soil more workable for planting.&nbsp; Generally, tilling is most appropriate when working in an alley cropping arrangement where the trees being arranged in rows make it easier to avoid damage to roots but it can also be done in natural forest settings in a more limited scope.&nbsp; To limit damage to trees and soil, use hand tools or small equipment (e.g. roto-tiller) and reduce tilling depth to not more than 2-3\u201d. &nbsp;Avoid tilling on slopes that will result increased sediment deposits into waterways.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Minimizing disturbance and inputs is a priority in riparian habitats.&nbsp; In some cases, it may be feasible to establish a forest farming operation while working around existing native vegetation in the understory, especially if they provide beneficial shade, additional crops for personal use or sale, or beneficial interactions between species.&nbsp; For instance, Oregon grape produces berberine in its roots, which has anti-fungal properties that may benefit the health of adjacent crops.&nbsp; It also produces berries, decorative foliage, and medicinal products.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Non-native, invasive weeds, however, should always be removed ahead of establishing a forest farming system.&nbsp; Shade tolerant noxious weeds like English holly, English ivy, and yellow archangel will continue growing in low-light conditions and outcompete crop species.&nbsp; In forest stands with higher light availability, less shade tolerant weeds like Himalayan blackberry or Scotch broom may get established and compete with crops in your forest plots.&nbsp; This can also occur after thinning. Thinning, site preparation, and planting of crop species should be timed in succession to reduce the presence of unwanted vegetation establishing in the interim.&nbsp; &nbsp;Managing noxious weeds and other unwanted vegetation will require ongoing monitoring and maintenance beyond just site preparation.<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Designing a Forest Farm<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Forest farming is a broad term for a wide variety of practices and crops that can be cultivated in a forest setting.&nbsp; The technical components of forest farming are highly crop specific.&nbsp; For more information on individual crops and design support, see the <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"211\">Crop Profiles<\/a> pages.&nbsp; This resource will be expanded over time as more region-specific information becomes available. &nbsp;The following section will discuss broad guidance for forest farming and how to maximize production by utilizing the overstory, midstory, and understory of a forest.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__68377\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Types of Forest Farming<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__68377\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>There are multiple approaches to forest farming in the understory, which are influenced by the intensity of management you have capacity and interest to apply:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Wild stewarding is the least intensive form of understory cultivation.&nbsp; In this approach, a landowner or manager will identify crop trees, plants, or fungi that are already growing on site for harvest (Rural Action, 2019).&nbsp; The existing population is tended and expanded to sustain yields over multiple years.&nbsp; This approach may also include managing unwanted vegetation to promote the growth of target species and limited thinning or pruning to create desired light conditions.&nbsp; Wild stewardship is the lowest risk approach due to limited inputs but will result in reduced production compared to other approaches.  Because of it&#8217;s low inputs and footprint, it can also be practiced in the inner zone of a riparian buffer. <\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Wild simulated is a more intensive forest farming method that includes establishing a species on a site that did not exist there previously (Rural Action, 2019).&nbsp; Crops selected for wild simulated systems will be native species that are suited to the site\u2019s conditions or non-native plants that grow in analogous conditions.&nbsp; This approach will likely require more inputs, including site preparation, thinning, pruning, and\/or animal protection (i.e. fencing).&nbsp; Limited chemical inputs or soil amendments may be used.&nbsp; Wild simulation is effective at efficiently producing crops for markets that desire crops with \u201cwild\u201d characteristics (University of Missouri, 2018).<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Woods cultivated is the final and most intensive approach to forest farming.&nbsp; In woods cultivated systems, there are significant inputs of time and materials to maximize yields of forest crops.&nbsp; This can include establishing raised beds and significant soil amendments, as well as site preparation, intensive thinning, pesticide applications, and fencing. Woods cultivated systems generally focus on a smaller number of crops than to cultivate them more efficiently.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--thirds\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"683\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildStewarded-1024x683.jpg\" alt=\"A graphic describing wild stewarded forest farming. The forest is dense and forest farming crops are diverse and scattered throughout the understory in small quantities.\" class=\"wp-image-474\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildStewarded-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildStewarded-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildStewarded-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildStewarded-1536x1024.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildStewarded-2048x1365.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Wild stewarding is a form of forest farming where species that are already present in a forest are tended and managed to provide yields over multiple years.  Notice that the forest farming crops in the understory are diverse and scattered in small quantities as they would exist naturally. (Graphic created by G. Steffen, WSU CAHNRS Communications)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"683\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildSimulated-1024x683.jpg\" alt=\"A graphic depicting wild simulated forest farming methods.  The canopy is thinner than in the wild stewarded graphic.  The forest farming crops are arranged in groups and sometimes in grown in rows, and are growing in greater quantity. \" class=\"wp-image-473\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildSimulated-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildSimulated-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildSimulated-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildSimulated-1536x1024.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WildSimulated-2048x1365.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Wild simulated forest farming systems are more intensive and involve establishing forest farming crops on suitable sites.  Notice that the crops are arranged in groups, sometimes in rows, and are growing in greater quantity than in wild stewarded systems. (Graphic created by G. Steffen, WSU CAHNRS Communications)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"683\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-1024x683.jpg\" alt=\"A graphic depicting woods cultivated forest farming systems.  Crops are arranged in rows and grown in raised soil beds in the foreground.  Mushrooms are cultivated on logs in the background. The forest canopy has been thinned more heavily than in the other graphics.  \" class=\"wp-image-472\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-1536x1024.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming_WoodsCultivated-2048x1365.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Woods cultivated is the most intensive form of forest farming and often includes methods like soil amendments and raised beds, or cultivating mushrooms on substrate harvested from the forest.  Notice that there are fewer crops grown more intensively and the forest canopy has been thinned more heavily (Graphic created by G. Steffen, WSU CAHNRS Communications)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Some forest farming practices don\u2019t fit nicely into these classifications. For instance, <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/maplesyrup\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"216\">maple sugaring<\/a> is arguably the most well-known and widespread form of forest farming in North America and supports a billion-dollar industry in the U.S. alone. However, it doesn\u2019t fit neatly into any of the three forest farming categories. It would most likely be lumped in with woods cultivated sheerly due to the high inputs required, but it\u2019s an exception that highlights the flexibility of forest farming and agroforestry more broadly. For existing or budding forest farmers, it\u2019s important not to get too hung up on these and other classifications but to instead use them as a tool for planning and developing a better understanding the practice.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__48038\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Forest Strata<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__48038\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Overstory<\/h5>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>The canopy is what makes a forest a forest.&nbsp; Up until now we have largely discussed the canopy in the context of the shade it provides. However, canopy trees can be selected and managed to produce valuable crops while still allowing for understory cultivation.&nbsp; Tree syrups are a great example of a product derived from overstory trees.&nbsp; In fact, maple sugaring is the most common form of forest farming in North America.&nbsp; In the Pacific Northwest, tree syrups are a less established forest product than in regions like the Midwest or Northeast, where syrup is frequently made from sugar maple (<em>Acer<\/em> <em>saccharum<\/em>).&nbsp; However, significant effort and headway has been made to support the development of a maple sugaring industry in western Washington and Oregon using our native bigleaf maple (<em>Acer<\/em> <em>macrophyllum<\/em>).&nbsp; For more information on this, see the <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/maplesyrup\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"216\">bigleaf maple syrup crop profile<\/a>.&nbsp; Paper birch (<em>Betula<\/em> <em>papyrifera<\/em>) is another native species that can be used to make syrup.&nbsp; Both birch and maple are well suited to riparian sites and forested buffers.&nbsp; There is also some evidence that red alder sap can be harvested when using artificial vacuum, but information is limited on this.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"768\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Tap-768x1024.jpg\" alt=\"A close up photo of a plastic tap and tubing draining sap from a maple tree.\" class=\"wp-image-476\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Tap-768x1024.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Tap-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Tap-1152x1536.jpg 1152w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Tap-1536x2048.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/Tap-scaled.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 768px) 100vw, 768px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Food grade plastic spiles and tubing are used to collect maple sap and drain it to a location where it can be processed (Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Other crops derived from overstory trees includes boughs, pinecones, and edible crops like fruits, nuts, and flowers.&nbsp; Boughs from western redcedar trees are a common non-timber forest product in the Pacific Northwest.&nbsp; They are used for floral arrangements, wreaths, and other holiday decorations.&nbsp; Indigenous communities also use western redcedar bark for a wide variety of products, including clothes, basketry, and cordage. &nbsp;Pinecones can be harvested from native western white pine and Ponderosa pine, also to be used for decorative products.&nbsp; Ponderosa pine nuts are also edible. Oregon white oak acorns were historically cultivated and processed for flour by indigenous communities.&nbsp; Bigleaf maple flowers can be harvested in the spring and are a delicious addition to salads or can be fried and\/or pickled.&nbsp; Non-native fruit and nut producing species with better developed markets (e.g. chestnut, walnut, persimmon) can be a component of forest farming systems too, but are best relegated to the outer zones of working riparian buffers to ensure mostly native species in the inner zone.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Midstory<\/h5>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>The space between the understory and the overstory is called the \u201cmidstory\u201d.&nbsp; The exact boundary of the midstory can vary but the term is generally used to refer to woody shrubs and smaller trees that grow above understory vegetation but do not have the growth traits to reach recruitment into the canopy. Shade tolerant canopy trees like western redcedar and bigleaf maple will also occupy the midstory temporarily while they grow into the overstory.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The midstory is an ideal space for native fruit and berry producing shrubs like currants, elderberry, hazelnut, and huckleberry.&nbsp; Non-native shrubs and commercial cultivars of native species can also be grown in the midstory.&nbsp; Although many of these species will establish and yield under shade, those yields will often be limited.&nbsp; Most species will yield better with greater light availability, which could be achieved by cultivating them in a canopy gap or planting them along a forest edge. &nbsp;<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"923\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162956-scaled-e1750883466133-923x1024.jpg\" alt=\"A view looking into a canopy gap of a forest where significantly more light is able to get through to the forest floor.\" class=\"wp-image-478\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162956-scaled-e1750883466133-923x1024.jpg 923w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162956-scaled-e1750883466133-270x300.jpg 270w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162956-scaled-e1750883466133-768x852.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162956-scaled-e1750883466133-1384x1536.jpg 1384w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162956-scaled-e1750883466133-1845x2048.jpg 1845w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20240701_162956-scaled-e1750883466133.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 923px) 100vw, 923px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Canopy gaps are areas that can be managed as &#8220;forest gardens&#8221; and crops with higher light demands, such as berry-producing shrubs, will yield better there. (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>The midstory is also a good place for fiber and decorative crops like willow.&nbsp; Willow \u201cwhips\u201d, small diameter stems, are grown, harvested, and weaved to make baskets.&nbsp; Decorative species like pussy willow produce attractive flowers and brightly colored stems for floral arrangements.&nbsp; Cottonwood species can also be used for baskets, and the buds can be collected and processed into medicinal products.&nbsp; These species are both suited for riparian soils and can be \u201ccoppice\u201d managed to continuously produce smaller stems.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Understory<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>Growing crops in the understory is what is most often referred to when using the term forest farming.&nbsp; This typically involves growing herbaceous food, medicinal, or nursery crops on the ground below a forest canopy.&nbsp; Examples of high-value understory crops that are commonly forest farmed include ramps, ginseng, goldenseal, and black or blue cohosh.&nbsp; These species are not native to Washington State but could be grown in analogous conditions here.&nbsp; Since these crops already have established markets, they have high potential as additions to farming enterprises and small forest ownerships.&nbsp; WSU Extension researchers are currently examining multiple crops, including <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/shiitake\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"246\">log-grown shiitake mushrooms<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/ramps-wild-onion\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"324\">ramps<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/ginseng\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"334\">ginseng<\/a>, tea plant, and <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/wasabi\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"300\">wasabi <\/a>for production in forested settings.&nbsp; As this information becomes available, it will be posted on the <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"211\">Crop Profiles<\/a> page.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The market for wild foraged mushrooms (e.g. chanterelles, oysters, truffles) is significant and well-established in the Pacific Northwest.&nbsp; Most of these are difficult to reliably cultivate in commercial quantities in forested settings but wild stewarded and wild simulated approaches could yield enough for personal use.&nbsp; One exception to this is shiitake mushrooms, which yield reliably in forest cultivated systems in Western Washington and are an excellent addition to farming enterprises.&nbsp; Additionally, several institutions are researching best management practices for commercial cultivation of native truffle species in Pacific Northwest forests.&nbsp; Truffles are high-value mushrooms prized for their culinary applications.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"768\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-1024x768.jpg\" alt=\"Shiitake mushrooms being grown on logs beneath a forest with a river in the background.\" class=\"wp-image-12\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-1536x1152.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2024\/09\/20240531_083605-2048x1536.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Forest cultivated shiitake systems are low-input and require a small footprint, making them ideal for forested riparian buffers (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>The market for decorative greenery harvested from forests (e.g. salal, beargrass, sword fern) is also significant in the Pacific Northwest.&nbsp; Greenery can be cultivated relatively easily but has limited return on investment because of their relatively low market value. &nbsp;Many small forest owners sell greenery and boughs from their forests for supplemental income between timber harvests.&nbsp; However, most of the market needs are met by collection on large private ownerships (i.e. timber industry) and public lands.&nbsp; Wild stewarding practices are most applicable for decorative greenery because of the low return on investment. Native nursery stock and seed can also be cultivated in the understory of forests, and the market for native plants is arguably one of the better developed for forest farming crops in the Pacific Northwest.&nbsp; Although they are typically not high-value products, selling potted plants and shrubs or seed can be a viable source of supplemental income with limited inputs.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Value-added products can be a great way to increase the value of crops harvested from forest farming operations.&nbsp; Wild jams and jellies, decorative wreaths, and essential oils are all examples of value-added products derived from non-timber forest products.&nbsp; Marketing these products as \u201cwild\u201d, \u201cforest-grown\u201d, and locally produced can further increase their value.&nbsp; Keep in mind that processing food products will be subject to state and local regulations and licensing requirements.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Markets for most forest farming crops are underdeveloped in the Pacific Northwest, particularly native species.&nbsp; Non-native crops with existing markets, such as ramps, shiitake, or wasabi, may be the best points of entry for beginning forest farmers, while electing to expand and diversify to less explored crops over time.&nbsp; There are many native species with potential to produce commercially viable food, medicine, or decorative products, but need more market development.&nbsp; For example, <a href=\"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/forestfarming\/crops\/oregongrape\/\" data-type=\"page\" data-id=\"287\">Oregon grape<\/a> contains berberine, the active compound found in goldenseal, which is a high-value forest farming crop in the eastern U.S.&nbsp; Oregon grape growers in the Pacific Northwest can market Oregon grape products as a potential substitute for goldenseal. There is also significant opportunity to learn from and support traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) about the use and management of non-timber forest products from indigenous communities.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--thirds\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"687\" height=\"599\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/GB01-e1745255333406.jpg\" alt=\"Ginseng plants grown in rows beneath a forest canopy.\" class=\"wp-image-337\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/GB01-e1745255333406.jpg 687w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/GB01-e1745255333406-300x262.jpg 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 687px) 100vw, 687px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Ginseng is a common forest farming crop in the Appalachian region and may be suitable for cultivation in Washington hardwood dominant stands (Photo: Harding&#8217;s Ginseng Farm)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"901\" height=\"731\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/copy.jpg\" alt=\"Ramps growing in the understory of a deciduous forest.\" class=\"wp-image-330\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/copy.jpg 901w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/copy-300x243.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/04\/copy-768x623.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 901px) 100vw, 901px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Ramps are spring ephemerals that are common forest farmed in the northeast and Midwest, and may be suitable for cultivation in Washington hardwood dominant forests (Photo:  Penn State University Extension)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"795\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_114555-scaled-e1752706242394-1024x795.jpg\" alt=\"A wasabi plant growing in a stream.\" class=\"wp-image-639\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_114555-scaled-e1752706242394-1024x795.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_114555-scaled-e1752706242394-300x233.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_114555-scaled-e1752706242394-768x597.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/07\/20250716_114555-scaled-e1752706242394.jpg 1523w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Wasabi is a shade tolerant, semi-aquatic plant that can grow in forested seeps and springs (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"548\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming-01-1024x548.png\" alt=\"A graphic depicting the benefits of forest farming.  A side profile of a forest with understory, midstory, and overstory is shown with th benefits listed in the outline of trees and shrubs.\n\nBenefits:\nModerate climate\nFruit\/nuts\nHerbs\nFertilizer\nHoney\nCarbon sequestration\nTeas\nWood \nBoughs\nHabitat\nBuilding soil\nWater infiltration\nRoot crops\nSeeds\nFood security\nNutrient cycling\nIncrease biodiversity\nAnimal fodder\nMulch\nMushrooms\nTimber\nCrafting materials\nMedicine\nClimate change mitigation\nFuels\nAir purification\nSyrup\nBerries\nCuttings\" class=\"wp-image-483\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming-01-1024x548.png 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming-01-300x160.png 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming-01-768x411.png 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming-01-1536x821.png 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/ForestFarming-01-2048x1095.png 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The many benefits of forest farming are maximized with a multi-strata approach (Graphic by Snohomish Conservation District). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Maintenance<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>Whether starting with an existing forest or planting a new one, managing a forest for forest farming requires ongoing maintenance, often with activities in every season.&nbsp; In this section, we will discuss some of the monitoring and maintenance activities required and how they may change over time as forests grow and develop.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__49214\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Crop Protection<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__49214\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>The forest is home to all types of hungry mammals, birds, insects, and more.&nbsp; Naturally, this can result in pest pressure on crops in your forest forming plots.&nbsp; The type of pests and mitigation strategies will vary greatly depending on the crop.&nbsp; For instance, log-grown shiitake and ramps are frequently targeted by slugs.&nbsp; Deterrents for these pests can include slug bait traps, slug killer products, copper or metal mesh barriers, and, in the case of shiitake, wrapping logs in fruiting blankets.&nbsp; For understory and midstory crops growing in the ground, fencing may be the most practical solution to prevent herbivory from small and large mammals (e.g., \u201cdeerbuster\u201d fence).&nbsp; Some forest farmers will use trees as supports for fencing to cut down on costs.&nbsp; Others have piled up downed wood to create a debris fence.&nbsp; For berry and nut producing crops, netting or other bird deterrent strategies may be necessary.&nbsp; The inputs to protect an operation will be scaled with the intensity of management and your desired yield.&nbsp; Some may be content to \u201cshare\u201d with the wildlife and take what is available to them for personal use.&nbsp; Wild stewarded and wild simulated systems may take the approach of planting excess to factor in potential pest-related losses or other low-budget solutions.&nbsp; However, woods cultivated systems would merit a greater investment in pest mitigation efforts to protect assets.&nbsp; &nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-callout\" >\r\n        \n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">&#8220;Floating Block&#8221; Fencing<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>Fencing can be expensive, so creative solutions can be a key to saving time and money.&nbsp; A relatively cheap way to prevent browse from deer and other large mammals on forest farming crops is \u201cfloating block\u201d fencing.&nbsp; With this method, high tensile wire is wrapped around the perimeter of an area where crops are being grown, using trees as supports.&nbsp; Once the wire is tensioned, deer fence (typically 7-8\u2019 tall) can be attached to the wire.&nbsp; You should have at least two wires, one along the top and bottom.&nbsp; A middle wire can provide extra support, especially if you\u2019re dealing with pressure from large animals like elk.&nbsp; &nbsp;When setting up the wire, cut small sections of a rigid plastic tubing where the wire comes in contact with trees to protect them from the tension (see photo).&nbsp; Leaving a \u201cskirt\u201d of fencing along the bottom and staking it to the ground or partially burying it can help prevent smaller animals from getting in.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Using this method, fencing can cost between $1.40-$2.00 per foot (based on 2025 prices).  In the photos below, the area protected is approximately 2,500 square feet and was done for less than $300.  <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Cost break-down for 2,500 square foot plot (~0.06 acres):<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Deerbuster fencing (8&#8242;) &#8211; $1.30 per foot ($234 total)*<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>12.5 gauge high tensile wire \u2013 $0.05 per foot ($9 total) *<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Fencing strainers and tensioner tool &#8211; $15<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Zip ties to connect fencing to wire &#8211; $21<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Total: $279<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>Using those prices, the cost for fencing a half-acre with this method would be ~$780 and a full acre would be ~$1,100. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>*Typically bought in bulk.  Prices and minimum amount will vary.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"473\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_113303-1024x473.jpg\" alt=\"Fencing to in the forest to protect forest farming crops from pests.\" class=\"wp-image-1006\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_113303-1024x473.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_113303-300x139.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_113303-768x355.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_113303-1536x710.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_113303-2048x946.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Forest farmers often get creative with fencing.  This photo shows a &#8220;floating block&#8221; style fencing, where 8&#8242; plastic deer fence is hung from high tensile wire using trees as supports. Rigid plastic tubing is used to protect trees from the tension of the wire.  (Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"473\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151712-1024x473.jpg\" alt=\"Floating block fencing protecting a forest farming plot from deer. \" class=\"wp-image-1007\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151712-1024x473.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151712-300x139.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151712-768x355.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151712-1536x710.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/10\/20250926_151712-2048x946.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Forest farmers often get creative with fencing.  This photo shows a &#8220;floating block&#8221; style fencing, where 8&#8242; plastic deer fence is hung from high tensile wire using trees as supports. (Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n\n<p>Of course, animals are not the only pests to consider when protecting crops.&nbsp; Poaching is a common problem in forest farming operations in the eastern U.S. where high-value crops like ginseng and goldenseal are grown.&nbsp; Poaching is also an issue the Pacific Northwest, particularly for timber as well as some non-timber forest products like cedar boughs or figured maple wood. &nbsp;Developing a strategy for mitigating exposure to poachers is worthwhile when designing and maintaining a forest farming operation regardless of region. See \u201cAccessibility\u201d in the Site Assessment section for tips on preventing poaching of your forest farming crops.<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__92961\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Stand Development and Succession<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__92961\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>Forests are not static.&nbsp; Just as trees grow and develop, forests change too. Although these changes are typically not noticeable year to year, over decades the structure and composition of a forest will evolve to completely change how the forest looks, potentially affecting what crops can be grown there.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Forest development refers to the structural changes in forests over time.&nbsp; These changes will be most noticeable in the first several decades of a forest\u2019s lifespan.&nbsp; Forest development consists of four stages, also called \u201cseres\u201d:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol type=\"1\">\n<li>Stand initiation \u2013 whether by planting or through natural regeneration, this stage includes the establishment of a new \u201ccohort\u201d of trees after a large-scale disturbance (e.g. harvest, wildfire).&nbsp; This stage has the highest tree density.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Stem exclusion \u2013 The high density of trees established during stand initiation leads to canopy closure and heavy competition for light and other resources.&nbsp; This leads to significant mortality.&nbsp; Native pests and diseases (e.g. bark beetles, root diseases) are often found in greater populations at this stage but also help facilitate the stand to \u201cself-thin\u201d.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Maturity \u2013 After the period of high competition and mortality, the forest experiences a long period of relatively low competition and mortality among the original cohort of trees.&nbsp; Meanwhile, shade tolerant species establish and grow in the understory and midstory.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Old growth \u2013 After decades or centuries of growth, the original cohort of trees in the overstory begins to die off, leaving canopy gaps for shade tolerant species to take over.&nbsp; Large standing trees and large down wood are signatures of old growth forests, along with a spectrum of age classes among trees.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full is-resized\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/The-four-phases-of-stand-development-as-presented-by-Oliver-and-Larson-1990-Variations.png\" alt=\"A graphic depicting forest stand development over time, from left to right.  On the far left, trees are small and dense in the stand initiation phase. In the next phase, stem exclusion, trees are bigger resulting in more crowding and many trees dying.  The third stage is understory reinitiation.  There are fewer overstory trees but they are larger and small trees are beginning to establish underneath them.  The fourth and final stage on the far right of the graphic is old growth.  This stage has the fewest overstory trees but they are very large, and some are dying.  Medium and small trees are continueing to grow underneath.  \" class=\"wp-image-487\" width=\"1031\" height=\"279\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/The-four-phases-of-stand-development-as-presented-by-Oliver-and-Larson-1990-Variations.png 850w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/The-four-phases-of-stand-development-as-presented-by-Oliver-and-Larson-1990-Variations-300x81.png 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/The-four-phases-of-stand-development-as-presented-by-Oliver-and-Larson-1990-Variations-768x208.png 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1031px) 100vw, 1031px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">This graphic depicts the four stages of forest stand development from left to right. Graphic from Kimmins (2003).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>In the Pacific Northwest, a forest can reach maturity in 80-100 years, while old growth typically takes centuries to achieve.&nbsp; Forest farming can occur at any stage, but most small private forests will be somewhere between stand initiation and maturity.&nbsp; Working with forest development to maintain suitable structure for forest farming requires proactive management through thinning and pruning to create ideal light and shade conditions.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Succession refers to changes in forest composition over time.&nbsp; Typically, the first cohort of trees established during stand initiation are shade intolerant species that grow well on disturbed sites with bare mineral soil.&nbsp; These are referred to as \u201cpioneer species\u201d.&nbsp; In Western Washington, examples of these species are red alder, Douglas fir, cottonwood, and Ponderosa pine.&nbsp; As the forest develops, shade tolerant species establish in the understory (e.g., western redcedar, bigleaf maple, western hemlock) and eventually recruit into the canopy as gaps open.&nbsp; As previously discussed, the composition of a forest overstory will dictate the density and timing of shade, which will impact understory and midstory crops. &nbsp;Thinning and pruning can help manipulate shade, but other tools like understory planting and coppice management can help dictate the species composition in favor of your forest farming operation for years to come.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For many, these changes will not significantly affect operations in their lifetime but should still be considered in their management to sustain operations over multiple generations (if that is the goal).&nbsp; Still, some people may be establishing forest farming systems at key transition points in a forest\u2019s development and must consider these dynamics.&nbsp; For example, many small forest owners in Western Washington own decadent red alder stands.&nbsp; Red alder is short-lived and begins to decay as early as 50-60 years old, rarely living past 80.&nbsp; These stands often naturally transition to western redcedar or western hemlock, which will drastically change conditions for forest farming.&nbsp; Alternatively, if there is not sufficient seed source for shade tolerant conifers nearby, the increasing light availability as the red alder dies off facilitates noxious weeds like blackberry to take over.&nbsp;&nbsp; Landowners facing this situation will need to proactively manage for desired future conditions by planting desired trees in the understory to maintain the forest canopy and their forest farming operation.&nbsp; For help with this specific situation, see the WSU Extension Publication \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/management-options-for-declining-red-alder-forests\">Management Options for Declining Red Alder Forests<\/a>\u201d.<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h4 id=\"unique-id-1__7454\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Forest Health and Wildfire<\/button>\r\n    <\/h4>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__7454\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>Disturbance is a natural part of forest development.&nbsp; This refers to any biotic or abiotic factor that damages or kills forest vegetation, particularly overstory trees.&nbsp; Understanding the factors that can affect the health of the flora that comprise a forest is key to operating a forest farming system long term.&nbsp; This includes animal damage, insects, disease, wildfire, and, more broadly, a changing climate.&nbsp; These can impact forests at any stage of development and require an understanding of local and regional forest health issues to prevent potential damage to a forest farming system.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-row wsu-row--halves\" >\r\n    \n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<p>Animal damage is most problematic during forest establishment, but some  animals can cause damage in more established forests.&nbsp; Examples include  deer or elk damaging bark while rubbing antlers (i.e. \u201cbuck rub\u201d),  beaver felling trees for habitat, or black bear removing bark to feed on  sugar-rich plant tissue in the spring.&nbsp; In most cases, this kind of  damage does not occur at a scale that warrants management.&nbsp; If it does,  strategies to mitigate damage can include trapping, hunting, and  installing fencing or other animal deterrents.&nbsp;&nbsp; It is important to  consult with local, state, and federal wildlife restrictions or contact  your state\u2019s wildlife agency before trapping or hunting.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-column\"  style=\"\">\r\n\t\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"819\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20200228_083244-scaled-e1750885912796-1024x819.jpg\" alt=\"Several maple stumps showing beaver damage in a riparian forest. The stems have been felled and removed with chew marks easily visible on the stumps. (Photo: Patrick Shults, WSU Extension).\" class=\"wp-image-489\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20200228_083244-scaled-e1750885912796-1024x819.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20200228_083244-scaled-e1750885912796-300x240.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20200228_083244-scaled-e1750885912796-768x614.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20200228_083244-scaled-e1750885912796-1536x1229.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20200228_083244-scaled-e1750885912796.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Beaver can do significant damage to trees in riparian areas (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension).  <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n<\/div>\r\n\n<\/div>\n\n\n<p>Insects and disease can affect trees of any size or age.&nbsp; Problems with native pests are often caused by poor growing conditions which inhibit trees\u2019 abilities to defend themselves. Proper species and site selection can prevent these issues as well as proactive thinning to manage stand density and ensure remaining trees have proper light, water, and nutrients to maintain vigorous growth.&nbsp; The more worrisome insects and diseases are non-native and can significantly damage or kill healthy trees.&nbsp; Examples of this include emerald ash borer (<em>Agrilus<\/em> <em>planipennis<\/em>), Asian long-horned beetle (<em>Anoplophora<\/em> <em>glabripennis),<\/em> and sudden oak death (<em>Phytophthora<\/em> <em>ramorum<\/em>), all of which cause widespread tree mortality.&nbsp; Knowing which invasive pests are present or expected in your area will influence your species selection and forest management decisions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Wildfire also has significant impacts of forest health and structure.&nbsp; Forest fires have become particularly widespread and intense in the interior of the Pacific Northwest, but fire also plays a role in the forest ecology of Western Washington. For forest farmers in fire-prone regions, protecting crops from wildfire is critical and may require practices like fuel load reductions, thinning, pruning, and installing fire breaks.&nbsp; Alternatively, some forest farming operations may include opportunities to utilize fire as a management tool.&nbsp; Camas (<em>Camassia quamash (Pursh) Greene<\/em>)), for example, functions well within a frequent fire ecosystem (e.g. oak\/camas prairie) and can benefit from prescribed burns.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"478\" src=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250505_162857-1024x478.jpg\" alt=\"Purple camas flowers sprouting in a grassy meadow. \" class=\"wp-image-491\" srcset=\"https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250505_162857-1024x478.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250505_162857-300x140.jpg 300w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250505_162857-768x359.jpg 768w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250505_162857-1536x717.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/wpcdn.web.wsu.edu\/extension\/uploads\/sites\/47\/2025\/06\/20250505_162857-2048x956.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">Camas is a culturally significant food for indigenous communities in the Pacific Northwest.  It can be cultivated in oak woodlands and is conducive to prescribed fire and grazing. (Photo:  Patrick Shults, WSU Extension). <\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Climate change will have significant impacts on forest health and composition throughout the U.S. in the coming decades.&nbsp; Individuals creating a new forest have an opportunity to improve their climate resilience by planting trees that are likely to adapt to future conditions.&nbsp; This could mean choosing species that are resistant to drought and severe weather or transferring plant genetics from southern regions (i.e. seed zone transfer) to help trees adapt to warmer climate.&nbsp; In established forests, applying silvicultural practices like thinning to ensure sufficient light, water, and nutrients are available to overstory trees can help build resilience, as well as harvesting and planting to select more resilient species.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Keep Reading:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.climatehubs.usda.gov\/hubs\/northern-forests\/topic\/assisted-migration-forests\">Assisted Migration &#8211; USDA Northern Climate Hub<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/assessing-tree-health\">Assessing Tree Health \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/backyard-forest-stewardship-in-eastern-washington\">Backyard Forest Stewardship in Eastern Washington (PDF) \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/backyard-forest-stewardship-in-western-washington\">Backyard Forest Stewardship in Western Washington (PDF) \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.climatehubs.usda.gov\/hubs\/northwest\/topic\/climate-change-impacts-northwest#:~:text=More%20precipitation%20is%20now%20falling,occurring%20earlier%20in%20the%20year.\">Climate Impacts in the Northwest &#8211; USDA Northwest Climate Hub<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.climatehubs.usda.gov\/hubs\/northwest\/topic\/climate-resilience-guide-small-forest-landowners\">Climate Resilience Guides For Small Forest Landowners (Western Washington\/Eastern Washington) &#8211; USDA Northwest Climate Hub<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/forest-ecology-in-washington\">Forest Ecology in Washington \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dnr.wa.gov\/InsectsAndDisease\">Forest Health Highlights &#8211; Washington Department of Natural Resources<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/forests\/health-management\">Forest Health and Management \u2013 OSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.dnr.wa.gov\/LandownerAssistancePortal\">Landowner Assistance Portal \u2013 Washington DNR<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/extension.oregonstate.edu\/catalog\/pub\/em-9440-managing-douglas-fir-western-hemlock-forests-coast-range-western-cascades-fire\">Managing Douglas-fir-western hemlock forests of the Coast Range and Western Cascades with fire in mind \u2013 OSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/management-options-for-declining-red-alder-forests\">Management Options for Declining Red Alder Forests \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/pubs.extension.wsu.edu\/silviculture-for-washington-family-forests-2\">Silviculture for Washington Family Forests \u2013 WSU Extension<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>For more resources on forest management, visit the <a href=\"https:\/\/forestry.wsu.edu\/resources\/\">Resources page<\/a> of the <a href=\"https:\/\/forestry.wsu.edu\/\">WSU Extension Forestry website<\/a>.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\" \/>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Additional Forest Farming Guides and Resources<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>*Indicates a technical resources created for Washington State or the Pacific Northwest<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.appalachianforestfarmers.org\/\">Appalachian Forest Farmer Coalition<\/a><ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/exforestfarming\">AFFC Youtube Channel<\/a><\/li><\/ul><ul><li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.appalachianforestfarmers.org\/publications\">AFFC Publications<\/a><\/li><\/ul>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.appalachianforestfarmers.org\/forest-farming-footnotes\">Forest Farming Footnotes Newsletter<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.chelseagreen.com\/product\/farming-the-woods\/?srsltid=AfmBOooo53KjK2mhP9QNYdCom9HRvd7fQYQCnGskqXi5xUyyW8vN0umy\">Farming the Woods (Book by Steve Gabriel)<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/research\/publications\/an\/nac_an7.pdf\">Forest Farming: An Agroforestry Practice \u2013 National Agroforestry Center (PDF)<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/nac\/resources\/tools\/forest-farming-calculator.shtml\">Forest Farming Calculator<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/forest-farming.extension.org\/\">Forest Farming Community \u2013 Extension Foundation<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Pb_HPPBY95c\">Forest Farming Site Assessment (Webinar Recording)<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.lincolnu.edu\/cooperative-extension-and-research\/forest-farming-site-selection-and-preparation-guidelines.pdf\">Forest Farming Site Selection and Preparation Guidelines \u2013 University of Missouri-Lincoln (PDF)<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/unitedplantsavers.org\/the-forest-farmers-handbook-2nd-edition-free-download\/\">The Forest Farmer\u2019s Handbook<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/snocd.squarespace.com\/s\/Management-Template_Multi_Story-Cropping_Final.pdf\">Forest Farming Template and Species Table \u2013 Snohomish Conservation District (PDF)<\/a>*<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/hwwff.cce.cornell.edu\/\">How When and Why of Forest Farming Resource Center \u2013 Cornell University<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=VIipqY8ilnI\">Introduction to Forest Farming (Webinar Recording)<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.nativeplantsandfoodsinstitute.com\/\">Native Plants and Foods Institute &#8211; Tahoma Peak Solutions<\/a>*<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.ntfpinfo.net\/lit\">Non-Timber Forest Product Extension Literature (Publication Hub)<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/nac\/resources\/tools\/ntfp.shtml\">Non-timber Forest Product Calculator<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/centerforagroforestry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/07_ForestFarming_TrainingManual_2024Master_0410_Digital-8.pdf\">Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices:&nbsp; Forest Farming Chapter \u2013 UM Center for Agroforestry (PDF)<\/a><\/li>\n\n\n\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/wildfoodsandmedicines.com\/\">Wild Foods and Medicine<\/a>*<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n<div class=\"wsu-accordion\">\r\n    <h3 id=\"unique-id-1__89018\" class=\"wsu-accordion__title\">\r\n        <button class=\"wsu-accordion__title-button wsu-accordion--toggle\" aria-expanded=\"false\" aria-controls=\"unique-id-1__content\">Works Cited<\/button>\r\n    <\/h3>\r\n    <div id=\"unique-id-1__content\" class=\"wsu-accordion__content\" aria-labelledby=\"unique-id-1__89018\">\r\n        <div class=\"wsu-accordion__content-inner\">\r\n            \n\n<p>Andrus, R. A., Peach, L. R., Cinquini, A. R., Mills, B., Yusi, J. T., Buhl, C., Fischer, M., Goodrich, B. A., Hulbert, J. M., Holz, A., Meddens, A. J. H., Moffett, K. B., Ramirez, A., &amp; Adams, H. D. (2024). Canary in the forest?\u2014Tree mortality and canopy dieback of western redcedar linked to drier and warmer summers. <em>Journal of Biogeography<\/em>, <em>51<\/em>(1), 103\u2013119. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Apsley, D., &amp; Carrol, C. (2013). Growing American Ginseng in Ohio:&nbsp; Selecting a Site. <em>OSU Extension Fact Sheet F-58.&nbsp; The Ohio State University. <\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bardhan, S., &amp; Kronenberg, R. (n.d.). <em>Forest Farming Site Selection and Preparation Guidelines Lincoln University Cooperative Research \u2022 Agroforestry Guide Sheet<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Bekris, Y., Prev\u00e9y, J. S., Brodie, L. C., &amp; Harrington, C. A. (2021). Effects of variable-density thinning on non-native understory plants in coniferous forests of the Pacific Northwest. <em>Forest Ecology and Management<\/em>, <em>502<\/em>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Betzen, J. J., Ramsey, A., Omdal, D., Ettl, G. J., &amp; Tobin, P. C. (2021). Bigleaf maple, Acer macrophyllum Pursh, decline in western Washington, USA. <em>Forest Ecology and Management<\/em>, <em>501<\/em>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Burkhart, E. P. (2024, April). Forest Farming: The Importance of Site Evaluation and Selection of Forest Botanicals. <em>Gather to Grow Forest Farming Conference<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Frankson, R., K.E. Kunkel, S.M. Champion, D.R. Easterling, L.E. Stevens, K. Bumbaco, N. Bond, J. Casola, &amp; W. Sweet. (2022). <em>Washington State Climate Summary 2022<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Handler, S., Pike, C., &amp; St. Clair, B. (2018). Assisted Migration. <em>USDA Forest Service Climate Change Resource Center<\/em>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Kimmins, J.P.. (2003). Old-growth forest: An ancient and stable sylvan equilibrium, or a relatively transitory ecosystem condition that offers people a visual and emotional feast? Answer &#8211; It depends. Conference. 79. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Linders, Mary &amp; Vander Haegen, Matthew &amp; Azerrad, Jeffrey &amp; Dobson, Robin &amp; Labbe, Ted. (2010). Management Recommendations for Washington&#8217;s Priority Habitats and Species: Western Gray Squirrel.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Miles, C. A., &amp; Daniels, C. H. (2019). GROWING WASABI IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST. <em>Pacific Northwest Extension Publishing<\/em>, <em>PNW605<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Piccolo, J. J., &amp; Wipfli, M. S. (2002). Does red alder (Alnus rubra) in upland riparian forests elevate macroinvertebrate and detritus export from headwater streams to downstream habitats in southeastern Alaska? <em>Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences<\/em>, <em>59<\/em>(3), 503\u2013513. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Poddar, S. (2021). MIYAWAKI TECHNIQUE OF AFFORESTATION. <em>Krishi Science<\/em>. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Rural Action. (2019). <em>The Forest farmers handbook\u202f: a beginners guide to growing and marketing at-risk forest herbs<\/em>. Rural Action.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Turk, T. D., Schmidt, M. G., &amp; Roberts, N. J. (2008). The influence of bigleaf maple on forest floor and mineral soil properties in a coniferous forest in coastal British Columbia. <em>Forest Ecology and Management<\/em>, <em>255<\/em>(5\u20136), 1874\u20131882. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>University of Missouri. (2018). Training manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices. <em>The Center for Agroforestry<\/em>, <em>105<\/em>(3).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>USDA. (2016). <em>Bigleaf Maple: Acer Macrophyllum<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>USDA. (2025). <em><a href=\"http:\/\/www.fs.usda.gov\/nac\/practices\/alley-cropping.php\">Alley Cropping<\/a><\/em>. National Agroforestry Center.<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n<\/div>\n        <div id=\"cahnrs-back-to-top\" class=\"cahnrs-back-to-top\" hidden aria-hidden=\"true\">\n            <a id=\"cahnrs-back-to-top-btn\" class=\"cahnrs-back-to-top__btn\" href=\"#product-top\" aria-label=\"Back to top\">\n                <span class=\"cahnrs-back-to-top__icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\u2191<\/span>\n                <span class=\"cahnrs-back-to-top__label\">Back to top<\/span>\n            <\/a>\n        <\/div>","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Forest farming provides an opportunity for landowners to grow high-value crops while maintaining the benefits that forests provide, including water quality enhancement, wildlife habitat, and carbon sequestration. For farmers, this can present an opportunity to develop income on marginal woodlots that cannot be utilized for traditional agriculture. Depending on the intended crop, forest farming can [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":68,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"_expiration_date":""},"categories":[],"tags":[],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/21"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/68"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=21"}],"version-history":[{"count":147,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/21\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1036,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/21\/revisions\/1036"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=21"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=21"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/extension.wsu.edu\/wrlp\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=21"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}